绿色GDP与GEP的区分与国际Costanza、Daily研究与国内丽水GEP核算的传承衔接关系

… the indicator “green GDP” and the … environmentally adjusted GDP in 2001–2007 and shows the discrepancy between traditionally calculated and environmen tally adjusted “green GDP” …

… The proponents of ‘green’ national accounts believe that new or corrected national accounting … to the environment and broader economic policies with environmental consequences. …

While the gross national/domestic product (GNP/GDP) index is a highly reliable indicator that reflects economic performance of a country, it still largely ignores the depreciation of assets, non-market economy and especially the damages to the environment caused by growth. Environmental sustainability of economic growth has come to be recognized as one of the most important pillars of sustainable growth and development. In order to tackle many challenges of the so-called green growth and sustainable development we try to build a new/alternative Green GDP indicator that should give us a clearer perspective of the consequences of economic progress by offering a new approach in quantifying the cost of ecological and environmental degradation. The indicator reviews economic growth through the environmental prism without speculating on how economic and social trends will evolve and how these developments will guide policy making in the years to come. We are well conscious that this indicator cannot ideally reflect the genuine status and improvement of national output, however, we see it as an attempt to encourage further discussions on the green growth in a diverse range of developing and developed countries. The results reveal a necessity for a new synergy between economic and environmental concepts, hence this study should be seen as an opportunity, not an obstacle for equitable and sustainable growth/development prospects.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the most well-known and widely used measure of a country’s economic health. However, GDP fails to account for the depletion of natural resources and the environmental damage that occurs in the pursuit of economic growth, leading to an incomplete and potentially misleading picture of a nation’s well-being. To address this shortcoming, Green GDP (GGDP) is proposed as a more comprehensive indicator that incorporates environmental factors into the economic assessment. This study builds on extensive literature reviews, internationally accepted GGDP accounting methods, and scholarly research to propose a new GGDP calculation model that better reflects a country’s sustainable development.The proposed GGDP model is divided into two main components: natural resource loss and environmental pollution loss. Each component is further broken down into primary factors that are condensed into 13 sub-criteria reflecting a country’s capacity for sustainable development. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is utilized to identify the most representative factors from these sub-criteria and to analyze the relationships among GGDP, these factors, and global mean temperature. Additionally, the Integrated Environmental Sustainability Index (IESI) is used to develop a global temperature mitigation prediction model, which considers the impacts of epidemics, sea and land temperatures, and variations in climate across different regions.The analysis shows a 74% probability that positive GGDP growth correlates with temperature changes over a 50-year period, indicating that economic activities measured by GGDP are linked to climate change. The GGDP model reveals significant differences between global GDP and Green GDP, with the latter growing at a much slower rate. This slower growth of Green GDP is primarily due to the declining share of GDP from natural resource-dependent activities, which has fallen from 90% in the 1970s to 80% in 2020. This trend underscores the increasing gap between traditional economic growth and sustainable development, suggesting that as countries continue to rely on natural resources, their overall ecological efficiency declines, environmental pressures increase, and the potential for long-term sustainable development diminishes.The findings demonstrate that all factors within the GGDP model are proportional to global temperature, underscoring the significant impact that natural resource utilization and pollution emissions have on economic growth and climate change. The study further evaluates global sustainable development by considering both economic and environmental perspectives. Using Brazil as a case study, the model is applied to assess the values of each component within the GGDP framework, providing a comprehensive analysis of the country’s sustainable development challenges and potential solutions. This approach establishes a method for assessing sustainable development that can be adapted for use in other countries, offering a path forward for integrating environmental considerations into economic policies.

… traditional GDP. This study aims to develop a Green GDP model for Thailand using the EIO-LCA method. Green GDP is calculated by subtracting environmental costs from the traditional …

Green GDP is an indicator of sustainable development and environmental accounting via the green economy concept. This article aims to present a method for calculating green GDP according to the Herman E. Daly formula and its empirical calculation for Thailand. Such calculation relies on the output distance function via stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) to estimate the elasticity of good and bad outputs before computing the shadow prices of air pollution and water pollution and calculating green GDP succession. The findings of this study indicate significant elasticity of around 0.1146 for air pollution and 0.1915 for water pollution. During a period 1997-2016, green GDP when focusing on the pollution cost and resource depletion reveals an average value of around 4,807,994.45 million baht (137,371.27 USD million) with an average gap from GDP approximately 33.59%. The average ratio output per pollution cost was around 2.99 million baht per mg/kg.

Research background: Numerous modern indicators are attempting to integrate better economic, political, social, and environmental ambitions to uncover potential synergy, trade-offs, and future views that center around the notion of a so-called green economy. As long as the various indicators are not bounded in one comprehensive measurement, utilizing knowledge of relevant information and statistics that are crucial for monitoring the progress will not give us answers on the progress towards green growth either. Without an adequate measurement framework and robust statistics, the evaluation of the green economy is open to subjective reasoning. Purpose of the article: This paper aims to offer a strong standpoint for green topics by exploring the concept of Green GDP. The paper introduces a new, updated database on Green GDP for the set of 160 countries from 1970?2019. Methods: This database is distinctive due to its balanced coverage of two components of the green economy: quantitative feature (standard methodological algorithm) and qualitative feature (opportunity costs) within a common Green GDP accounting framework.    Findings & value added: Standardizing new methodologies and procedures for estimating environmental costs with a statistical foundation provides added value, which we hope will support the creation of reliable accounting and valuation systems for the green economy on a developing "green platform."

… of green GDP accounting, China's State Environmental … a nation-wide pilot green GDP survey between 2004 and … NBS), Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning (CAEP) and units …

… , social and environmental) objectives of a green economy, and … gross domestic product), an alternative or expanded set of indicators is required for measuring progress toward a green …

… Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA) and industry data, this paper estimates China’s green GDP and green … , the ratio of green GDP to traditional GDP gradually increases from …

… meeting specified environmental performance standards. In this perspective, a "greened GDP" … while simultaneously respecting specified environmental quality and resource husbandry …

The economy, environment, and social pillars of sustainability demand the environmental management system (EMS) to improve the cycle system continuously. The result of the evaluation and review stages needs to account for the measurement method that potentially enhances the policy implication. Thus, the green GDP found to be practically suited with current country-based EMS, where it shows by China’s green GDP and GDP gap reached 5% in 2016. The objective of this paper is to acknowledge the implementation of green GDP in the country-based environmental management system. This paper is based on a literature review process, which covered around eight references. The result and discussion lead to the implementation of green growth indicator in national and regional green economy strategy of Indonesia, China, and Finland. The challenges of unstandardized indicators and calculation formula prospected to be tackled by reflecting the current indicator with potential global adjusted formula and valuation through international policy enforcement and integrated communication. The conclusion describes that green GDP is potentially integrated with EMS to ensure the improved cycle of sustainability.

Introduction: The green GDP accounting system has become the focus of sustainable development, but a comprehensive accounting of environmental pollution cost and resource depletion cost has not yet been formed.Methods: This study measures environmental pollution cost and resource loss cost, and establishes the green GDP accounting system based on the SEEA-2012. To analyze the environmental effects brought by the adoption of green GDP accounting system, a BP neural network model including green GDP, traditional GDP and global climate indicators is constructed to predict the global climate changes.Results: The empirical results show that after the adoption of the green GDP accounting system, the global climate extreme weather can be reduced, the sea level will be lowered, and the climate problem is thus alleviated.

… Another reason to measure green GDP is that … their environmental conditions with those of another country. These reasons are also why economists want to measure green GDP. …

… in GEP accounting, including functional value accounting, figuring out prices and economic value accounting of the ecosystem products and … In this paper, GEP of Guizhou Province was …

The large-scale loss of ecosystem assets around the world, and the resultant reduction in the provision of nature’s benefits to people, underscores the urgent need for better metrics of ecological performance as well as their integration into decision-making. Gross ecosystem product (GEP) is a measure of the aggregate monetary value of final ecosystem-related goods and services in a specific area and for a given accounting period. GEP accounting captures the use of many ecosystem services in production processes across the economy, which are then valued in terms of their benefits to society. GEP has five key elements that make it transparent, trackable, and readily understandable: (1) a focus on nature’s contributions to people; (2) the measurement of ecosystem assets as stocks and ecosystem services as flows; (3) the quantification of ecosystem service use; (4) an understanding of ecosystem service supply chains through value realization; and (5) the disaggregation of benefits across groups. Correspondingly, a series of innovative policies based on GEP have been designed and implemented in China. The theoretical and practical lessons provided by these experiences can support continued policy innovation for green and inclusive development around the world.

… mechanism of ecological products, where GEP presents promising application prospects (… study, GEP refers to the gross value of all ecological products and services the ecosystem of a …

Significance To achieve sustainable development, there is a pressing need to move beyond conventional economic measures like gross domestic product (GDP). We develop gross ecosystem product (GEP), a measure that summarizes the value of the contributions of nature to economic activity. We illustrate the calculation of GEP in Qinghai Province, China, to show that the approach is tractable both across China and globally. Known as the water tower of Asia, Qinghai is the source of the Mekong, Yangtze, and Yellow Rivers and nearly two-thirds of GEP derives from water-related values. GEP was greater than GDP in Qinghai in 2000, and was three-fourths as large as GDP in 2015. China is using GEP to guide investments in ecosystem conservation and restoration. Gross domestic product (GDP) summarizes a vast amount of economic information in a single monetary metric that is widely used by decision makers around the world. However, GDP fails to capture fully the contributions of nature to economic activity and human well-being. To address this critical omission, we develop a measure of gross ecosystem product (GEP) that summarizes the value of ecosystem services in a single monetary metric. We illustrate the measurement of GEP through an application to the Chinese province of Qinghai, showing that the approach is tractable using available data. Known as the “water tower of Asia,” Qinghai is the source of the Mekong, Yangtze, and Yellow Rivers, and indeed, we find that water-related ecosystem services make up nearly two-thirds of the value of GEP for Qinghai. Importantly most of these benefits accrue downstream. In Qinghai, GEP was greater than GDP in 2000 and three-fourths as large as GDP in 2015 as its market economy grew. Large-scale investment in restoration resulted in improvements in the flows of ecosystem services measured in GEP (127.5%) over this period. Going forward, China is using GEP in decision making in multiple ways, as part of a transformation to inclusive, green growth. This includes investing in conservation of ecosystem assets to secure provision of ecosystem services through transregional compensation payments.

Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) denotes the aggregate value of ecosystem services (ESs) supplied by all ecosystem types within an accounting area for a given accounting period in monetary units and represents one of the multiple types of measures of ES values. The value of each ES is typically calculated by multiplying the ES's quantity by the ES's unit value that may be reflected by various proxies, such as market price, replacement cost, and avoided damage cost. As an economic, ecological, or environmental indicator, GEP should be calculated based on certain standards, allowing for comparison over time and across regions. While many standards, including which ESs to account for and what proxies for ESs' values to use, should be unified to improve the comparability of GEP, this standardization does not mean a single GEP accounting system is sufficient to achieve multiple goals. Instead, at least two accounting systems with different applicability and levels of sophistication are needed. (1) To assess environmental status, ecosystems' capacities to provide ESs, and the performance of environmental governance, there should be a simplified system that accounts for both realized ESs (actually received by humans) and potential ESs (beyond actual humans demands) and adopts a nationwide unified constant unit value of each ES. (2) To assess ESs' actual contributions to socioeconomic development and human well-being, there should be a more sophisticated system that accounts for realized ESs only and adopts a dynamic unit value of each ES. This dynamic unit value should be adjusted to fit local socioeconomic and ecological contexts, consider the tipping point or threshold in each ES's quantity, and reflect the diminishment or increment in the marginal utility of each ES.

Accounting for Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is a crucial approach for quantifying ecological value, assessing the contributions of ecosystems to human well-being, and supporting sustainable development decision-making. For the Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Zone, an island-centered administrative region, we developed a GEP indicator system and accounting framework tailored to islands for integrated accounting of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. We used a functional value approach that combines biophysical models with statistical data and conducts physical and monetary accounting in two steps. The accounting methods and procedures were refined to exclude resource and labor inputs from production processes and eliminate external contributions. From 2015 to 2023, the GEP increased by 9.118 billion CNY, representing an increase of 133.03%. The total GEP exhibited a phased rapid–slow–rapid fluctuation pattern over time. The value structure shifted from being dominated by material supply services to being dominated by cultural services. The high-value areas of flood regulation exhibited a clear expansion trend, whereas water conservation and climate regulation showed a fragmented decline. Carbon sequestration, oxygen release, and soil retention remained relatively stable. The findings support evaluating the effectiveness of ecological conservation, implementing ecological compensation, and formulating sustainable development policies in the Pingtan Comprehensive Experimental Zone.

As a measure of ecosystems' contribution to human well-being, the concept of Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is an integrated monetary index for the evaluation of final ecosystem services, which has attracted widespread attention around the world. In China, both national and local governments have launched a series of GEP accounting pilot projects, with the aim to incorporate this new concept into real world decision-making. However, a critical review of these practices remains lacking, especially regarding their current status and problems. In this study, by performing a systematic review and data integration of current literature and government documents, we comprehensively described the GEP accounting practices in China, including pilot project's coverage, accounting methods, and policy application. Then, we identified five major problems in current GEP accounting practices in China, which prevent GEP from being accurately measured in the short term. We proposed that GEP accounting should be a constantly evolving process with both long-term and short-term improvement goals. More in detail, the accuracy issues in GEP accounting require longer periods of time to resolve; while its repeatability, comparability, and applicability should be improved in the short term, so that it can be incorporated into decision-making. In response to these challenges, we suggested the adaptation of GEP accounting index screening principles as a possible future direction, which can help to apply GEP results in the current stages of decision making. By improving GEP concept and accounting, it will be possible to establish a unified comparable GEP accounting system and reduce the gap between the GEP and decision-making.

The economic and social development evaluation system with the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the leading indicator is no longer applicable to the current social progress in China. It is essential to carry out an assessment of the Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) to integrate ecological benefits into the economic and social evaluation system and promote sustainable socio-economic development. This study took Guangxi, an important province in South China, as the study area. We used four periods of land use and land cover data (LULC), meteorological data, soil data and yearbook statistics to construct a GEP assessment framework based on geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) technologies. We accounted for the provisioning services, regulating services, and tourism services provided by Guangxi in 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 and analyzed the region’s and municipalities’ spatial–temporal pattern characteristics and trends of change in GEP. In addition, this study also discusses the relationship between GEP and GDP. The results showed that many important products and services provided by natural ecosystems in Guangxi had enormous economic benefits. GEP had increased from CNY 15,657.37 billion in 2005 to CNY 36,677.04 billion in 2020, and the distribution of GEP showed obvious spatial heterogeneity. The value of ecosystem regulation services was about 65–89% of GEP, which is the main component of GEP. From 2005 to 2020, natural ecosystem protection and socio-economic development have achieved coordinated development in Guangxi. GEP and GDP showed upward trends in general. Although Guangxi is relatively backward in terms of economic development, the scientific quantification of the unrealized value of the services provided by the ecosystem through GEP accounting makes it possible to transform ecological advantages into economic advantages. It could help the local government and people to re-recognize the value of ecological resources and realize the beautiful vision of lucid waters and lush mountains as invaluable assets.

Conducting ecological benefit assessment is of great significance for promoting ecological benefits to be included in economic and social evaluation system and pushing the construction of ecological civilization. Ecological benefits refer to the beneficial effects of natural ecosystems on human production, living conditions and environmental conditions. Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is a measure of the aggregate monetary value of ecosystem goods and services in a given region in an accounting period, which can reflect the ecological benefits of specific area. This research proposed the framework of GEP accounting for ecological benefits assessment, established the accounting indicator system and methods. On the basis of remote sensing data and statistical data, this research took Qinghai Province as a case to measure the GEP for ecological benefits assessment, and analyzed the stakeholders. The research results show that the GEP of Qinghai Province in 2015 was

How to measure the economic value of forest ecosystems is an important research topic for sustainable development. Existing quantitative systems for ecosystem values were compared and analyzed on the basis of characteristics of forest ecosystems in the Taishan Scenic and Historic Spot with reference to the Technical Guidelines for Accounting for the Gross Value of Ecological Products in Shandong Province. Two new indicators, namely, forest protection and scientific research and education, were added to the accounting system, forming a “forest sample” applicable to the accounting of GEP in nature reserves to better understand the synergistic effect between conservation and development. The forest GEP of the Taishan Scenic and Historic Spot in 2022 and 2023 was calculated according to the index system developed in this work, and the results of these calculations were used to analyze the environmental changes and current status of the Taishan forest ecosystems. The results revealed that the GEP of forest ecological products in Taishan Scenic and Historic Spot in 2023 was 4.478 billion yuan, the value of the unit area was 496,900 yuan per hectare, and the value of the regulating service was 2.312 billion yuan, which was slightly greater than the value of the cultural service, at 2.186 billion yuan. The values of secondary classification of forest ecosystems were determined to be in the following order: evergreen coniferous forests>  deciduous broad-leaved forests>  mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests>  sparse forests. Compared with that in 2022, the GEP value of forests in Taishan Scenic and Historic Spot has increased by 110%, and ecological protection is more effective.

… An adequate assessment of the GEP is important for balancing economic development and … study, the GEP of China in 2020 was calculated based on the latest 2022 GEP accounting …

Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is a single currency to measure the contribution of an ecosystem to society. It is the sum of the value of products and services provided by the ecosystem to humans. Based on this, GEP characterizes the current situation of the ecological environment in a region and can measure the contribution index provided by ecosystems. Based on land use data, rainfall data, soil data, statistical yearbook, DEM and other data, this paper constructs the accounting framework of Hainan Island’s GEP, quantitatively evaluates Hainan Island’s GEP from 2010 to 2020 and analyzes the research results. The results are as follows: (1) The GEP of Hainan Island’s ecosystem rose from 596.404 billion CNY in 2010 to 1032.096 billion CNY in 2020, an increase of about 42.21% with an average annual growth rate of 6.3%. The overall GEP has shown an upward trend. Among them, the value of regulation service accounts for the largest proportion was up to 73–83%. (2) The overall distribution of GEP in Hainan Island is uneven, decreasing from the central mountainous areas to the eastern coastal areas around to the west. In particular, Danzhou City, Wenchang City and Haikou City have higher values, while Tunchang, Baoting County and Wuzhishan City have lower values, and Wuzhishan City has the lowest values. Hainan Island is rich in natural resources, which contain great value. Through the accounting of GEP, we can clearly determine the value of the ecosystem, which can help the relevant departments estimate the GEP of Hainan Island’s ecosystem. It can provide a reference for Hainan to formulate ecological protection and sustainable development policies, and for the GEP estimation of other islands.

In order to integrate resource consumption, environmental damage and ecological benefits into the evaluation system of social and economic development, and practice the green concept of "Lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets", this research was based on the Green GDP and Gross Ecosystem Product accounting to develop comprehensive accounting indicators for Gross Economic-Ecological Product (GEEP). At the same time, the 2016 GEEP of 31 provinces in China is calculated. The results show that: 1) GEEP is a comprehensive ecological-economic accounting system based on weak sustainable development theory and welfare economics. GEEP follows the principle of GDP accounting and carries out value accounting for the final products of ecological and economic systems. Based on GDP, GEEP considers the ecological-environmental damage caused by human beings in economic product activities and the benefits of the ecological system to the economic system. 2) In 2016, China's GEEP was 126.6 trillion RMB, 1.6 times of GDP, among them, the cost of pollution damage was 2.1 trillion RMB, the ecological degradation cost was 0.69 trillion RMB, and the ecosystem regulating service was 51.4 trillion RMB. 3) The regional Gini coefficient based on GEEP was 0.44, which was 0.07 smaller than the regional Gini coefficient calculated based on GDP in 2016, thus GEEP accounting would benefit to shrink regional disparity. 4) Compared GEEP ranking with GDP ranking of all provinces, GEEP rankings in Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Yunnan, Qinghai and Tibet have increased by more than 10 ranks compared with GDP, and Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Hebei and Shaanxi, their GEEP ranking compared with the GDP ranking has descending more than 10 places.

… ecological assets, ecosystems provide human with ecological products and services, … Gross ecosystem product (GEP) is the value of products and services provided by ecosystems…

Achieving sustainable development is an issue of global concern. Accounting for the gross ecosystem product (GEP) value can specifically quantify the value of ecosystems for people, which is conducive to the formulation of sustainable eco-management decisions. Multi-source data, including remote sensing images, geospatial data, and statistical bulletin information, were used to quantify the GEP value of material products, regulating services, and cultural services for Fujian Province, China, during 2000–2020. On this basis, the spatio-temporal characteristics of GEP and the coupling relationship between GEP and GDP were analyzed. The results showed that: (1) the value of GEP in Fujian Province increased by 27.9% from CNY 3589.04 billion in 2000 to CNY 4590.25 billion in 2020. Among the service values, the contribution rate of regulating services to GEP was always the highest during the study period. (2) The spatial distribution pattern of GEP in Fujian Province was higher in the west and lower in the east. Comparing prefecture-level cities, Nanping maintained its GEP at the maximum value level over the past 21 years, while Xiamen and Putian maintained their GEP at the minimum value level. (3) GDP grew faster relative to GEP over the past 21 years, and the difference between GEP and GDP decreased. GEP had a long-term positive effect on GDP, while GDP had a smaller effect on GEP in the short term. The research was not only enriched in relation to GEP accounting, but also the policy recommendations for improving the mechanisms related to the optimization of sustainable development goals have some practical significance.

… (ecosystem provisioning, regulating, and cultural services), and Garzê′s gross ecosystem product (GEP) was … of Garzê′s ecosystem to beneficiaries. Our results indicated that the …

Abstract Ecosystem plays a crucial role as capital asset in life-support system since it would properly manage and yield a sustainable flow of vital services. However, few studies have involved continuous quantification for its ecological services value using more precise local parameters. In this study, gross ecosystem product (GEP) accounting framework was constructed in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) based on the theory of green gross domestic product (GDP) and local key parameters. The GEP and green gold index (GGI) within the PRD region of China were subsequently calculated to evaluate the achievements of ecological civilization system construction within the PRD region. The regional GEP of the RPD was US$465.3 billion, and regional GGI of the PRD was 0.47. Obvious differences in GEP and GGI occurred among cities within the PRD. For example, Zhaoqing had the highest GEP and GGI, indicating the abundant ecological resources in this city, while Zhuhai and Shenzhen had the lowest GEP and GGI, respectively. The ecological service structures of Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Zhuhai were well balanced, with close proportion in regulating service, provisioning service and cultural service. This was the first study that dealt with regional GEP accounting within the PRD region in China, which scientifically evaluated the achievements of urban ecological civilization construction, and further improved the market supply and ecological compensation of urban green products.

生态系统生产总值是生态系统为人类提供的产品与服务价值的总和,研究与建立一个独立的核算一个国家或地区的生态系统生产总值的方法与体系,对科学评价与合理利用自然资源、助推生态文明建设等具有重要意义。将生态系统生产总值分为供给价值、文化价值、承载价值与调节价值等四大类,基于能值分析方法和生态用地分类体系,计算得出全国及各地区生态系统生产总值,并将其与国内生产总值进行比较,为自然资源资产负债核算和综合生态系统管理等研究提供理论和方法借鉴。研究结果表明:(1)生态用地分类体系包括湿地、森林、草地和其他生态土地4个一级类型、19个二级类型。其中,湿地、森林、草地可统称为基础性生态用地。2008年,中国生态用地总量为763.95万 km²,约占陆域国土面积的80%,其中基础性生态用地约为530.8万km²。(2)2008年,中国国土生态系统生产总值约为19万亿美元,是当年国内生产总值4.71万亿美元的4倍,人均生态系统总值约为1.45万美元/人。从生态系统生产总值来看,广东、山东、河南位居前三,西藏最低;从人均生态系统生产总值来看,西藏和内蒙古居前,甘肃最低。

… about ecosystem services came out: an edited book by Gretchen Daily and an article in Nature by a group of ecologists and economists on the value of the world’s ecosystem services. …

In 1997, the global value of ecosystem services was estimated to average $33 trillion/yr in 1995 $US ($46 trillion/yr in 2007 $US). In this paper, we provide an updated estimate based …

… As we (authors) said in the paper, we (humans—both as a society and as individuals) are forced to make choices and trade-offs about ecosystems every day. These imply … What we …

Abstract Ecosystem services (ES) are the ecological characteristics, functions, or processes that directly or indirectly contribute to sustainable human wellbeing. The ecosystems that provide the services are ‘natural capital’ (NC) using the general definition of capital as a stock that yields a flow of services over time. But these concepts must be embedded in a whole systems view of the interdependencies between humans and the rest of nature, as espoused by ecological economics from its inception. Valuing NC and ES is therefore about assessing their contributions (in complex interaction with built, human, and social capital) toward the goal of sustainable wellbeing of the whole system of humans and the rest of nature. This recognizes that sustainable human wellbeing cannot be achieved without the wellbeing of the rest of nature. To achieve this, an integrated approach to valuation toward the three sub-goals of efficient allocation (E-value), fair distribution (F-value) and sustainable scale (S-value) is necessary. This article reviews these ideas, and discusses an agenda to improve understanding and valuation of NC and ES toward the goals of efficiency, fairness, and sustainability in a dynamic, whole systems context.

… ecosystem degradation. The challenge then is to provoke society to acknowledge the value of ecosystem services. … The economists of the day objected strenuously to the energetic …

… address the issue of valuation of ecosystem services. We want … valuation’ as the process of expressing a value for a particular action or object. In the current context, ecosystem valuation …

Abstract Discounting the future is essential to inform long-term decisions, but the future of humanity is being put in jeopardy by using the same discount rate for all capital types. Different types of capital assets (built, human, social, natural) have inherently different characteristics and contribute differently to the production of all goods and services. They will behave and depreciate differently and will thus require different discount rates and different approaches to discounting. Here, we estimate the net present value (NPV) of global ES recognizing that ecosystem services are the product of the interaction of the four different types of capital that each have different characteristics. We combine a range of different discount rates for each of the 4 types of capital according to their relative contributions to the production and value of each of 17 global ecosystem services. We estimate that the NPV of global ES ranges from $5.7 to $9.1 × 1015 (quadrillion 2011$USD). For comparison, the NPV of global GDP estimated in the same way would be about $2.9 to $4.8 × 1015. This more nuanced approach to discounting can improve information for long-term project appraisal and decision making and help build a more sustainable and desirable future.

The concept of ecosystem services – the benefits humans derive from functioning ecosystems – has been around for at least 4 decades. Attempts to value those services in monetary and other units have been around for just as long. However, several misconceptions have sprung up about ecosystem services, and especially the valuation of those services in monetary units, that are counterproductive to further dialogue, research, and solutions. This paper attempts to address some of those misconceptions, including showing that: (1) ecosystem services is not an anthropo centric concept; (2) economics is not only the market; (3) valuation is not commodification or privatization; (4) expressing relative values in monetary units is not necessarily ‘market-based ’ ; (5) in a world of trade-offs, whether to perform a valuation is not a choice since it happens implicitly; (6) ‘intrinsic values ’ are about rights, not relative valuation; and (7) relative valuation and rights-based approaches are complimentary not mutually exclusive. I address each of these misconceptions in turn and end with a plea for constructive dialogue on these important issues, not continuing unproductive debate founded on fundamental misconceptions.

… from ecosystem services but have zero ability to pay for them in monetary terms. To understand the value of these ecosystem services we … But, in fact, we do so every day. When we set …

Frontiers in Ecological Economics presents some of Robert Costanza's most important work on understanding ecological and economic systems. A signal contribution of Costanza's work is that he transcends disciplinary boundaries by collaborating closely with other specialists and thereby constructs an integrated analysis of the interaction between humans and the rest of the natural world. The book improves access to Robert Costanza's work which has made a fundamental contribution to the field of ecological economics.

An ecosystem is healthy if it is active, maintains its organization and autonomy over time, and is resilient to stress. Healthy ecosystems provide human well‐being via ecosystem services, which are produced in interaction with human, social, and built capital. These services are affected by different ecosystem stewardship schemes. Therefore, society should be aiming for ecosystem health stewardship at all levels to maintain and improve ecosystem services. We review the relationship between ecosystem health and ecosystem services, based on a logic chain framework starting with (1) a development or conservation policy, (2) a management decision or origin of the driver of change, (3) the driver of change itself, (4) the change in ecosystem health, (5) the change in the provision of ecosystem services, and (6) the change in their value to humans. We review two case studies to demonstrate the application of this framework. We analyzed 6,131 records from the Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD) and found that in approximately 58% of the records data on ecosystem health were lacking. Finally, we describe how the United Nations' System of Environmental‐Economic Accounting (SEEA) incorporates ecosystem health as part of efforts to account for natural capital appreciation or depreciation at the national level. We also provide recommendations for improving this system.

… valuation is imperfect information. Individuals might, for example, place no value on an ecosystem service … Both ecosystem service accounting and assessment need to be developed …

… We intend to estimate the value of ecosystem services in the … underestimate for the total economic value of the state’s … deviation for each of 12 ecosystem services for 11 Land Use/…

… Process-based dynamic models and valuation … ecosystem services and their valuation; (4) a collaborative tool for institutions involved in different aspects of ecosystem service valuation; …

… In doing valuation of ecosystem services we need to consider a broader set of goals that … But, in fact, we do so every day. When we set construction standards for highways, bridges and …

… While Daily's edited volume … ecological services and economic values, Costanza et al. attempt the more ambitious task of estimating the aggregate economic value of ecosystem services…

… Since then, many countries have made progress in constructing Natural Capital Accounts (NCA) based on the SEEA CF, some with international assistance. Footnote 1 Understanding …

Global statistical standards are being developed Reversing the ongoing degradation of the planet's ecosystems requires timely and detailed monitoring of ecosystem change and uses. Yet, the System of National Accounts (SNA), first developed in response to the economic crisis of the 1930s and used by statistical offices worldwide to record economic activity (for example, production, consumption, and asset accumulation), does not make explicit either inputs from the environment to the economy or the cost of environmental degradation (1, 2). Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (EEA), part of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA), has been developed to monitor and report on ecosystem change and use, using the same accounting approach, concepts, and classifications as the SNA (3). The EEA is part of the statistical community's response to move SNA measurement “beyond gross domestic product (GDP).” With the first generation of ecosystem accounts now published in 24 countries, and with a push to finalize a United Nations (UN) statistical standard for ecosystem accounting by 2021, we highlight key advances, challenges, and opportunities.

The Integrated system for Natural Capital Accounting (INCA) was developed and supported by the European Commission to test and implement the System of integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting – Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA). Through the compilation of nine Ecosystem Services (ES) accounts, INCA can make available to any interested ecosystem accountant a number of lessons learned. Amongst the conceptual lessons learned, we can mention: (i) for accounting purposes, ES should be clustered according to the existence (or not) of a sustainability threshold; (ii) the assessment of ES flow results from the interaction of an ES potential and an ES demand; (iii) the ES demand can be spatially identified, but for an overarching environmental target, this is not possible; ES potential and ES demand could mis-match; (iv) because the demand remains unsatisfied; (v) because the ES is used above its sustainability threshold or (vi) because part of the potential flow is missed; (vii) there can be a cause-and-effect relationship between ecosystem condition and ES flow; (viii) ES accounts can complement the SEEA Central Framework accounts without overlapping or double counting. Amongst the methodological lessons learned, we can mention: (ix) already exiting ES assessments do not directly provide ES accounts, but will likely need some additional processing; (x) ES cannot be defined by default as intermediate; (xi) the ES remaining within ecosystems cannot be reported as final; (xii) the assessment and accounting of ES can be undertaken throughout a fast track approach or more demanding modelling procedures.

Natural capital accounting allows for the integration of our natural assets within economic and political decision making, can improve natural resource governance and permits the development of environmentally adjusted macroeconomic indicators to serve as complements to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The United Nations System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (UN SEEA) is the accepted international standard for natural capital accounting, providing a framework for organizing and presenting statistics on the environment and its relationship with the economy. This paper details the different approaches to natural capital accounting related to the SEEA framework currently being undertaken across Ireland. We discuss the relationship between natural capital accounts and sustainable development measurement and provide recommendations for future work in these areas.

… framework for integrating environmental data into economic accounts, challenges remain in … This study explores how Natural Capital Accounting (NCA), as implemented through SEEA …

Economists and ecologists have worked for decades on measuring sustainability by supplementing or adjusting traditional economic indicators such as GDP. Given the threats to humanity from climate change, environmental degradation, and biodiversity loss, it is vital to incorporate values of natural capital into national economic decision-making. This review focuses on how natural capital applications, historically applied from local to global scales, address national-scale concerns. However, natural capital data and accounts have been only partially developed in most countries, given a lack of common metrics and monetary values. Existing accounts are often incomplete in both the types of natural capital and ecosystems they include (e.g., water, land, different ecosystem types) and the values they measure (e.g., market vs. nonmarket values). While it is important to continue work to embed natural capital into national economic accounts, the need for practical tools to analyze environmental problems is more urgent. We review alternative options for incorporating natural capital into national-scale decision-making and make recommendations for countries where the data, capacity, and political will to conduct formal natural capital accounting are lacking.

… , such as GDP, monetary SEEA ecosystem accounts alongside cultural and ecological … Finally, we demonstrate how CAN can complement existing SEEA Ecosystem Accounts by …

… the development of this approach, indeed SEEA can be considered the result of the ongoing effort to have natural capital accounting effectively and efficiently integrated into a decision-…

… Accounting (SEEA) considers both the level of economic development and the level of sustainable development. This study utilizes the SEEA accounting system and the “natural capital-…

The demand for information about property‐scale natural capital is growing rapidly as producers and supply chains respond to opportunities and pressures to report environmental performance information. Natural Capital Accounting offers promise but agreed methods for farm‐scale accounts are currently lacking. Here, we propose a framework, methods and models to quantify on‐farm natural capital and ecosystem services that support agricultural production. The accounts are outcomes‐based, data‐driven, transparent and repeatable. We demonstrate that our accounts are conceptually consistent with the UN System of Environmental‐Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting, although they do differ in two main ways: (i) we combine information on Ecosystem Type and Ecosystem Condition into a single indicator of Ecosystem State; and (ii) we use ecological models to derive indicators of the ability of Ecosystem Assets to generate a range of ecosystem services. Our approach integrates farm operational and production data, remote sensed imagery and data, ecological modelling and state and transition models to generate accounts that contain verifiable information about the extent and condition of natural capital assets, indicators of the ability of these assets to generate a range of intermediate and final ecosystem services (e.g. habitat maintenance for biodiversity, forage for livestock, carbon sequestration, pollination, soil regulation, shade and shelter) and environmental performance at the farm scale. The accounts are underpinned by ecological models, built from empirical (field‐tested) data, of the relationship between natural capital and measures of biodiversity and ecosystem services. We have demonstrated the practicality of our approach by producing farm‐scale accounts for 50 farms in south‐eastern Australia. Our accounts provide farmers with detailed information that could be used for sustainability reporting and the promotion of sustainable farm practices. Simultaneously, our accounts provide the agricultural supply chain with transparent information on the environmental performance of farming entities, helping to overcome false or exaggerated claims of sustainability by companies and retailers.

In natural capital accounting, ecosystems are assets that provide ecosystem services to people. Assets can be measured using both physical and monetary units. In the international System of Environmental-Economic Accounting, ecosystem assets are generally valued on the basis of the net present value of the expected flow of ecosystem services. In this paper we argue that several additional conceptualisations of ecosystem assets are needed to understand ecosystems as assets, in support of ecosystem assessments, ecosystem accounting and ecosystem management. In particular, we define ecosystems’ capacity and capability to supply ecosystem services, as well as the potential supply of ecosystem services. Capacity relates to sustainable use levels of multiple ecosystem services, capability involves prioritising the use of one ecosystem service over a basket of services, and potential supply considers the ability of ecosystems to generate services regardless of demand for these services. We ground our definitions in the ecosystem services and accounting literature, and illustrate and compare the concepts of flow, capacity, capability, and potential supply with a range of conceptual and real-world examples drawn from case studies in Europe and North America. Our paper contributes to the development of measurement frameworks for natural capital to support environmental accounting and other assessment frameworks.

Government organisations and other public sector bodies are compiling standardised environmental accounts to encourage more sustainable land use choices and improve management of the natural environment and associated benefits. While the United Nations System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Experimental Ecosystem accounting (SEEA EEA) provides such as framework, practical challenges remain in particular decision-making contexts. In urban areas, natural ecosystems have unique challenges because of anthropogenic pressures, providing a mix of ecosystem services (ES) that may be valued differently compared to non-urban natural ecosystems due to peoples proximity to these. It is unknown whether existing publicly available data sources for urban areas are compatible with the SEEA EEA framework and if these sources are sufficient for the development of an inclusive natural capital accounts. Here, we explore whether an inclusive urban natural capital account that includes a broad range of ES can be compiled from publicly available data sources for Greater London between 2007 and 2018. We showed that it was not possible to compile an inclusive urban natural capital account for London per year consistent with the SEEA EEA framework because of issues with (1) temporal inconsistencies, (2) land cover classifications and (3) lack of public access to certain data sources. Greater collaboration between institutions and other organisations could support our understanding of linkages between ecosystem extent, condition and ES flows. Overall, our findings suggest the need for renewed efforts to develop a cohesive source of publicly available data, which could be supported by making interdisciplinary work standard practise.

… GDP figures. The other attempts to value the loss of … all environmental services which are non-extractive and which do not involve commodity flows. We can think of the carrier services of …

Over the past few decades urbanization and population growth have been the main trend all over the world, which brings the increase of economic benefits (EB) and the decrease of cropland. Cropland protection policies play an important role in the urbanization progress. In this study, we assess the trade-offs between EB and ecosystem services value (ESV) under three cropland protection policy scenarios using the LAND System Cellular Automata for Potential Effects (LANDSCAPE) model. The empirical results reveal that trade-offs between EB and ESV in urbanizing areas are dynamic, and that they considerably vary under different cropland protection policy scenarios. Especially, the results identify certain “turning points” for each policy scenario at which a small to moderate growth in EB would result in greater ESV losses. Among the three scenarios, we found that the cropland protection policy has the most adverse effect on trade-offs between EB and ESV and the results in the business as usual scenario have the least effect on the trade-offs. Furthermore, the results show that a strict balance between requisition and compensation of cropland is an inappropriate policy option in areas where built-up areas are increasing rapidly from the perspective of mitigating conflict between EB and ESV and the numbers of cropland protection that restrained by land use planning policy of Wuhan is a better choice.

Traditional gross ecosystem product (GEP) accounting methods often operate at macro scales, failing to reflect the localized and nuanced values of wetland ecosystems. This study addresses these challenges by introducing a fine-grained classification system based on a localized adaptation of international standards. The framework integrates high-precision national land surveys and remote sensing quantitative analysis while incorporating fisheries resource models, climate regulation beneficiary mapping, and visitor interpolation to address data scarcity related to human activities. This approach refines the spatial calculation methods for functional quantity accounting at fine scales. The results demonstrate that the refined classification maintains consistency with traditional methods in total value while adapting to multi-scale accounting, filling gaps at small and medium scales and providing a more accurate representation of localized wetland characteristics. Additionally, the study highlights the dominance of cultural services in GEP, emphasizing the need to balance cultural and regulatory services to ensure fairness in decision-making. Finally, a village-scale decision-support model is proposed, offering actionable guidance for wetland management and sustainable development planning.

Improving the mechanism for realizing the value of ecological products is a crucial approach to implementing the concept that “ lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets, ” and it holds significant importance for promoting the transformation of ecological value and the green transition of the economy and society. As China ’ s first pilot city for the ecological product value realization mechanism, Lishui City has consistently innovated in gross ecosystem product (GEP) accounting and the application of its outcomes, offering a model and reference for nationwide ecological product value realization. This study systematically examines Lishui ’ s exemplary practices in ecological product value realization across three dimensions: GEP accounting, application of accounting results, and safeguarding mechanisms. The findings demonstrate that Lishui has established a progressive framework of “ standardized accounting — multi-scenario application — institutional safeguarding, ” achieving full coverage of GEP accounting at the municipal, county, township, and village levels. It has pioneered the integration of GEP accounting results into strategic planning, economic development, ecological regulation, and performance evaluation, while establishing a robust safeguard mechanism for GEP application. Nonetheless, challenges still remain, such as an immature natural resource asset ownership system, insufficient market investment enthusiasm, difficulties in spontaneously forming effective trading markets for ecological assets and products, and limited financial institution participation. The study recommends further rationally defining the attribution of rights and responsibilities of ecological products, promoting market-oriented ecological product development, and exploring green finance innovation models to advance innovative practices.

Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is a concept that reflects ecological product value by using geospatial technology. It can demonstrate the spatial distribution of ecological products and provide new perspectives and refined support for spatial planning. China’s county-level regions are important units for the promotion of ecological product value. Based on the concept of GEP, this study evaluated the ecological product value of China’s county-level regions in 2020, used Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) to visualise spatial patterns and conducted a correlation analysis between the GEP indices and economic and land use factors. The study found that the results of evaluation and analysis varied by spatial distribution: (1) county-level regions with high provisioning service indices are concentrated in northeastern China and southeastern China; (2) county-level regions with high regulating service indices are concentrated south of the Yangtze River and in the southern region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau; (3) county-level regions with high cultural service indices are concentrated in southeastern China; (4) county-level regions with high composite GEP indices are concentrated in northeastern China. The results have different correlations with different factors, reflecting the complex mechanisms behind ecological value transformation. For example, the composite GEP index for an area has a strong positive correlation with the area’s proportions of woodland area, water area and GDP.

The study could be a basis for designing and choosing appropriate economic valuation methods for ecosystem goods and services in Mongolia. Ecosystem economic valuation is an effective way to measure and understand the significance of the benefits people receive from ecosystems. Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is the monetary value of ecosystem services, making the findings comparable to GDP. The GEP concept seeks to employ specific indicators to quantify the economic value of all ecosystem products and services. GEP is the total value of final ecosystem goods and services supplied to human well-being in a region annually. We have developed the first GEP framework for Mongolia and conducted a case study using the market valuation method, shadow engineering method, replacement cost method, avoided cost method, conservation value method, and travel cost method. The GEP was calculated at the provincial level, and a framework was customized for the unique economic and ecological situations of Khovd Province. Our findings revealed that the total GEP in Khovd Province ranged from 110040.7 million dollars to 113650.2 million dollars in 2015 and 2020, respectively. The GEP to GDP ratio varied between 815 and 390 during this time. Among the different components of GEP, the value of ecosystem regulating services played a crucial role, accounting for 99.6% equally in both 2015 and 2020. The research results show that the distribution of GEP components in Khovd province is entirely distinct. The contribution of soil conservation services is the highest to the GEP of the selected case.

Ecosystem products and services are fundamental to human survival and development. The gross ecosystem product can be defined as the total value of products and services provided by ecosystems for human wellbeing and sustainable socioeconomic development. This includes the value of production system products, ecosystem regulation services, and ecosystem cultural services. The valuation of gross ecosystem product offers crucial technical support for constructing mechanisms by which to realize them, and it holds significant importance in promoting the comprehensive green transformation of economic and social development. In this study, we introduce the definition and accounting methods of the gross ecosystem product and explore the application of the gross ecosystem product and ecosystem asset accounting in ecological benefit assessment, using Tonglu County in Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, as an example. Finally, we provide recommendations by which to strengthen gross ecosystem product accounting and explore mechanisms for realizing ecological values based on this foundation. The results indicate that in 2021, the total gross ecosystem product value of Tonglu County reached CNY 55.129 billion, equivalent to 1.33 times the gross domestic product of that year. Among the various services, regulatory services contributed the most to the total ecological products, with climate regulation being the largest contributor at CNY 27.199 billion, accounting for 49.34%. Tonglu County boasts abundant natural resources, which hold significant value. By conducting an audit of the total ecological products, we can precisely determine the value of the ecosystem. This aids relevant departments in estimating the value of ecological products in Tonglu County’s ecosystem. Such information can support the formulation of ecological protection and sustainable development policies in Tonglu County, while also serving as a reference for estimating the total ecological products and enhancing the ecological value in other counties.

… Following the principle of people’s voluntariness, Lishui City … resources through surveys, GEP valuation, and registration of … The results show that the GEP of Lishui City increased by …

… Lishui. The conclusion of this article is as follows: The novelty of the governance system of value realization of ecological products in Lishui … 量GEP以实现GEP总量平衡. 三是绿色金融,地 …

Achieving sustainable development is an issue of global concern. Accounting for the gross ecosystem product (GEP) value can specifically quantify the value of ecosystems for people, which is conducive to the formulation of sustainable management decisions. We have improved the GEP framework accounting method for the first time and evaluated the ecosystem service value of 36 cities in three provinces in the northeast (TPN) of China from 2000 to 2019, which provides decision‐making references for the sustainable development of TPN. The main accounting results and policy recommendations are as follows: (1) The ecological value of Northeast China is in an upward stage—GEP has increased from 3.1 trillion yuan in 2000 to 4.5 trillion yuan in 2019, with climate regulation and water conservation functions being the main driving factors for GEP. (2) Based on the dual analysis of GEP and gross domestic product (GDP), there is still high room for improvement in most cities in the TPN region. While ensuring the protection of ecosystem services, cities can convert ecological value into economic value through carbon trading, water rights trading, ecological compensation, and other methods based on ecological characteristics, which is conducive to the sustainable development of GDP and GEP in the TPN region in the future. (3) The cold and hot spot analysis of GEP also provides decision‐making basis for the planning of future ecosystem service protection areas in the TPN region.

… value and monetary value. This study aimed to examine the usage of the travel cost method in Mongolia for the first time and introduced new knowledge for ecosystem valuation. The …

… promulgated in 2022, taking GEP physical quantity and value accounting results as a basis for … Except for Liandu District in Lishui, which is a key development area, the other 11 districts …

Ecological priority and green development have become the main theme of the times in China. The policy performance evaluation of ecological protection needs to quantitatively identify the changes of ecosystem quality and services firstly. This paper constructed the analytical framework driven by ecological protection policy of “Goal-oriented—Policy driven—Ecological quality–Service improvement”, and used multi-source data to establish the evaluation approach of “ecosystem quality-ecosystem services-ecosystem services value”. This study took Lishui as a case study to confirm the framework proposed. The results show that the ecosystem quality of Lishui has been steadily improved in recent 10 years. The overall quality of ecosystem services such as vegetation oxygen release, carbon sequestration, pollution removal, cooling service, humidification regulation and water conservation service has been improved by a range of 2%–6%. The value of ecological products has increased from 143.28 billion CNY in 2009 to 150.23 billion CNY in 2019. Lishui has implemented the development concept of “ecological civilization”, and the policies of ecological restoration or land remediation have changed land use and ecosystem quality, which was the main driving force for the improvement of ecological quality and the main promotion of ecological products value. The methods and results can provide insight into the impact of land policies on ecosystem services and decisions that support for further optimizing land ecological protection policies.

The value realization of ecological products is currently a rapidly evolving research topic; however, the definition of its concept, type, and operation mechanism remains relatively ambiguous. Operating in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, this review employs keyword retrieval and screening, utilizing VOSviewer and word cloud mapping for analysis, in order to reveal three primary research domains related to ecological product value realization. Based on thorough screening and the analysis of high-quality literature, this study comprehensively accomplished the following objectives: (1) clarifying the fundamental concepts of ecosystem services and ecological products, their interrelationships, and the scope of research on ecological products; (2) clarifying the basic connotation of realizing the value of ecological products; (3) demonstrating government-led approaches, market-driven approaches and collaborative pathways for realizing the value of ecological products; (4) reviewing international cases related to realizing the value of public ecological products, quasi-public ecological products, and operational ecological products. The academic contributions of this study are (1) expanding the theoretical framework for realizing the value of ecological products; (2) providing a Chinese perspective on global research on pathways to realize value from ecological products; and (3) offering a novel approach to revitalizing regional economies and improving local ecological environments. Based on this research, several shortcomings and future directions in this field are identified: (1) insufficient clarity, standardization, and uniformity in evaluation and measurement methods; (2) the absence of comparison between ecological products and urban economic products; (3) inadequate exploration of multi-stakeholder allocation and coordination mechanisms; (4) limited research on the role of capital markets in allocating ecological product resources.

Ecological economists currently face an important opportunity to influence national policies and global awareness regarding ecosystems. Ecosystem services (ES) frameworks, including the Intergovernmental Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the System of Environmental Economic Accounting Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EEA) will influence how national measurement systems integrate the value of ecosystems and their services into national planning and monitoring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Decision-makers are, however, faced with an embarrassment of riches. There is a multitude of ES frameworks, but no formal and integrative evaluation of the entire set exists. We review the IPBES, the SEEA EEA and 14 other ES frameworks using criteria designed to address operational and convergence considerations for national ecosystem accounting. While the frameworks reviewed incorporate many strengths, none fulfils all the criteria of a comprehensive national ecosystem accounting framework. We conclude with suggestions for conceptual, measurement and process developments to broaden the appeal, utility and acceptance of future frameworks. Considering these suggestions could substantially contribute to the development of ecosystem accounting frameworks that foster a constructive dialogue amongst the many disciplines, national contexts and viewpoints involved in understanding, measuring and making decisions about ecosystems.

The integration of ecosystem services and accounting systems can help different stakeholders understand the economic implications of environmental impacts. Any such integration requires clear understanding of how ecosystem services may match and integrate with traditional accounts. The Experimental Ecosystem Accounts (EEA) of the System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounts (SEEA) is developing quickly with applications at different administrative levels. One emerging feature is lack of agreement on conceptual notions and definitions that could reconcile different approaches. Some basic issues can be developed and solved only once a theoretical basis has been established. Since the first step of any application is to identify which ecosystem services to account for, this paper explores whether and to what extent the theoretical frameworks behind ecosystem services classification systems match the theoretical framework behind the SEEA EEA. This attempt first tackles the conceptual framework on the accounting side, then the conceptual framework on the ecosystem services classification side. Combining the two sides, it is possible to visualize matches or mismatches and to infer a few consequences and implications. Ecosystem services classification systems can guide separation of intra-ecosystem processes from final ecosystem services, and help disentangle ecosystem services from benefits, key requirements for integrating accounts.

Ecosystem condition is a fundamental component in the ecosystem accounting framework as part of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EEA). Here, we develop a conceptual framework and present a practical structure for implementing ecosystem condition accounts to contribute to the revision process of the SEEA EEA, focussing on six core elements: (1) developing a common definition of ecosystem condition, (2) establishing a conceptual framing for ecosystem condition, (3) portraying the role of condition within the SEEA EEA accounting system, (4) deriving an inclusive multi-purpose approach, (5) describing the components of condition accounts and (6) developing a three-stage structure for reporting accounts. We develop a conceptual framework for an inclusive condition account, building on an ecological understanding of ecosystems upon which definitions, concepts, classifications and reporting structures were based. The framework encompasses the dual perspectives of first, the interdependencies of ecosystem composition, structure and function in maintaining ecosystem integrity and second, the capacity of ecosystems to supply services as benefits for humans. The following components of ecosystem condition accounts are recommended to provide comprehensive, consistent, repeatable and transparent accounts: ‡ § | ¶ # § © Keith H et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. (1) intrinsic and instrumental values, together with ecocentric and anthropocentric worldviews; (2) a formal typology or classification of characteristics, variables and indicators, based on selection criteria; (3) a reference condition used both to compare past, current and future levels of indicators of condition and as a basis for aggregation of indicators; and (4) a three-stage approach to compiling accounts with increasing levels of information and complexity that are appropriate for different purposes and applications. The recommended broad and inclusive scope of ecosystem condition and the demonstrated practical methods for implementation of accounts will enhance the ecosystem accounting framework and thus support a wider range of current and potential applications and users.

… capital in national accounts. This paper identifies four key methodological challenges in developing ecosystem accounts: the definition of ecosystem services in the context of …

The United Nations System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) framework is the international standard for ecosystem accounting. To date, application of SEEA EA has been predominantly at large scales, usually at landscape and national levels. However, many environmental management decisions are taken locally, in site-specific contexts. While the use of SEEA EA continues to develop at all scales, there is currently no widely endorsed methodology for employing SEEA EA at local scales, such as the site level. We present a methodology for developing site-level ecosystem accounts, describing the important decisions at each step of the process. We also provide two case studies that demonstrate the context-dependent nature of the decision-making process of ecosystem accounting at small scales. The two major challenges for site-level accounting are stakeholder engagement and data availability. As the use of SEEA EA continues to increase in policy and decision-making processes worldwide, there is a need for local-scale case studies that adapt this methodology across a broad range of contexts. Our case studies provide some of the first published examples of the application of SEEA EA at the site level and are intended to promote consistent implementation of ecosystem accounting across scales.

Where sustainable development is concerned, there is an urgent need to establish new information systems that integrate economic, social and ecological factors. The emergence of demand for this information makes the development of ecological accounting possible. Yet, most current research on ecological accounting focuses on two aspects: (1) the theoretical aspect, including background, concepts and models and (2) specific research on ecological accounting. Some scholars have proposed a conceptual framework, but this is not systematic or thorough enough. Seizing the opportunity of sustainable development in a key strategic location of the world, this paper begins by analyzing the logical evolution of ecological accounting, summarizes the existing ecological accounting theory, and combines the mature theoretical study of resources accounting with environmental accounting. All of these efforts result in this paper forwarding a framework of ecological accounting that aims to provide a guideline for future development.

Ecosystem accounting is a statistical framework that aims to track the state of ecosystems and ecosystem services, with periodic updates. This framework follows the statistical standard of the System of Environmental Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA). SEEA EA is composed of physical ecosystem extent, condition and ecosystem service supply-use accounts and monetary ecosystem service and asset accounts. This paper focuses on the potential use of the "Value Transfer" (VT) valuation method to produce the monetary ecosystem service accounts, taking advantage of experience with rigorous benefit transfer methods that have been developed and tested over many years in environmental economics. Although benefit transfer methods have been developed primarily for welfare analysis, the underlying techniques and advantages are directly applicable to monetary exchange values required for ecosystem accounting. The compilation of regular accounts is about to become a key area of work for the National Statistical Offices worldwide as well as for the EU Member States in particular, due to the anticipated amendment to regulation on European environmental economic accounts introducing ecosystem accounts. On this basis, accounting practitioners have voiced their concerns in a global consultation during SEEA EA revision, about three issues in particular: the lack of resources, the need for guidelines and the challenge of periodically updating the accounts. We argue that VT can facilitate empirical applications that assess ecosystem services in monetary terms, especially at national scales and in situations with limited expertise and resources available. VT is a low-cost valuation approach in line with SEEA EA requirements able to provide periodic, rigorous and consistent estimates for use in accounts. While some methodological challenges remain, it is likely that VT can help to implement SEEA EA at scale and in time to respond to the pressing need to incorporate nature into mainstream decision-making processes.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. Ecosystem accounting: Past scientific developments and future challenges Adrien Comte, C. Sylvie Campagne, Sabine Lange, Adrián García Bruzón, Lars Hein, Fernando Santos-Martín, Harold Levrel

evolved rapidly in recent years through substantial efforts of both international organizations and the scientific community. Water regulation ecosystem services (ES) are key elements of regulating services in ecosystem accounting, with most relevant studies strongly relying on models for ES quantification up to now. In this paper, we provide a review of modeling efforts for water regulation ES based on 148 scientific papers, properly systematized, analyzed and interpreted by using a detailed and structured original template. We examined emerging trends and gaps in model applications and the readiness to integrate them into the NCA and SEEA-EA frameworks. We propose a classification scheme which organizes the 92 different models and modeling approaches identified in the review process into eight model categories so that this scheme can be efficiently used in the water ES assessment of and for further integration into the accounting framework. Among the models, the hydrologic model SWAT and the modeling tool InVEST are by far the most popular. The results of the review revealed differences between the general ES literature and the accounting-related papers. Moreover, our analysis sets the basis for useful recommendations of which model categories are the most appropriate for the water regulation ES, included in the SEEA-EA reference list. Based on the number of relevant papers, the reliability and the confidence level of the recommendations for the use of models have been incorporated in our analysis. We highlight as model category with the highest confidence the ones relative to quantification water flow and flood control service aiming at ES accounting. Models for erosion control ES can only be recommended with a lower confidence, while for water purification the results lack clear evidence for using a particular group of models. Based on the research findings we identified the main research priorities on model integration in the accounting of water regulation ES: 1) further development of guidelines for the use of models in ecosystem accounting; 2) analyses of the spatial aspects of the model towards a clear distinction between ecosystem service supply and use; and 3) development of integrated modeling approaches for water regulation ES accounting.

In 2012, the Netherlands started the testing and production of high resolution, national scale ecosystem accounts following the methodology of the System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EEA), in short ‘ecosystem accounting’. The SEEA is endorsed by the United Nations Statistical Commission as a comprehensive system for analysing and recording physical and monetary information on ecosystems and human dependencies on ecosystems. Many other countries have been developing natural capital accounts following the SEEA EEA, but the Netherlands work was novel in the sense that a comprehensive set of accounts has been developed for the whole country, including high resolution maps and accounting tables of ecosystem type, condition, services, assets, carbon and biodiversity. The work involved over 10 man-years of work, and was carried out in a collaboration by the Netherlands Statistical Office (CBS) and Wageningen University. This paper presents the methodologies followed and results obtained, and reflects on the policy applications of the accounts. Some further testing and development of the SEEA EEA is needed and also the Netherlands accounts are not yet complete. Nevertheless, the lessons learned in the Netherlands are relevant for other accounting efforts world-wide.

Abstract Marine ecosystem assets accounting is a cornerstone of the marine resource assets management; however, it is facing an imperfect accounting system in the current situation. Based on the System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA) Experimental Ecosystem Accounting, this paper initially combines the key concepts, the objectives, the extent, and the tabular structure in measuring the ecosystem assets. Subsequently, with the marine ecosystems as the research object, this paper attempts to design the accounting tables for the marine ecosystems extent, marine ecosystems conditions and the expected service flows of the marine ecosystems in physical terms. Furthermore, the technical issues such as trade-off, pricing and the choice of asset discount rate on expected marine ecosystem services are explored. With the accounting of the expected marine ecosystem services in monetary terms, the calculation of the marine ecosystem assets using the net present value method is possible, and the marine ecosystem assets accounts can be compiled. Finally, this paper proposes the existing challenges and directs the need for further research in designing the framework of marine ecosystem assets accounts.

Assessing the spatial and temporal changes in ecosystems is essential to account for natural capital contribution to human well-being. However, various methods to quantify these changes challenge the development of reliable values which can be integrated into national statistical accounts. Following the international system of environmental-economic accounting framework, which recently adopts an ecosystem accounting standard. We present a novel approach to develop an ecosystem extent account from existing ecosystem classifications. This study shows the spatial and statistical extent account of 26 ecosystems (i.e. forests, grasslands, croplands, and urban, among others) between 1970 and 2015 at the national scale. Extent accounts were developed at a resolution of 25 m and provided reliable information on how ecosystem types have changed over time in Spain. Our results reflect three main patterns in the extension account: (i) an increase in forest ecosystems, (ii) a considerable decrease in agroecosystems (especially annual croplands), and (iii) substantial development of urban areas. To the best of our knowledge, this method is the first attempt to develop a robust methodology to measure the extent of ecosystems at the national level. The proposed approach is crucial for a strong knowledge of ecosystem dynamics and their implications for ecosystem conditions and services at a national level. This has potential applications in urban planning, green infrastructure development, and multiple uses for territory management and policies, integrating natural capital into official statistics and mainstreaming ecosystems into national-level planning and monitoring processes.

… ecosystem accounting is an emerging framework for measuring the links between ecosystems … integrate ecosystem values into national planning. The community of practice for national …

… ecosystem accounting, in order to guide further scientific research in this field as well as the design of ecosystem accounting … fields of ecosystem services and natural capital accounting; …

The European Commission developed an amendment to Regulation 691/2011 on European environmental economic accounts to include reporting on ecosystem accounts compliant to the United Nations Statistical Commission System of Environmental-Economic Accounts – Ecosystem Accounts (SEEA-EA) standard. To support Member States implementing this regulation, an open source tool, known as INCA-tool, to generate ecosystem service accounts has been developed, based on the Knowledge Innovation Project on Integrated Systems of Naural Capital and Ecosystem Services Accounting (KIP-INCA) methodologies. The INCA-tool was developed by taking into account the FAIR principle for software and data, as well as existing interoperability standards by the SEEA community. Three types of users were identified with their specific needs, interactions and skills. To meet their needs, the INCA-tool was split into two parts, a python package to perform the calculations and an acessible and easy-to-use user interface in QGIS to integrate national information. With a first version of the toolkit in place, improvements to the existing calculation methods and alignment with the upcoming EU regulation can be achieved. Further, feedback from Member States beta-tests and their experiences is currently collected and implemented and the full public roll-out is planned for the end of 2022. The software packages in the toolkit were already used to extend the existing nine INCA European wall-to-wall account series with the year 2018.

… of ecological assets and ecology;3) the difference between the monetary and non⁃monetary values of ecological … perspectives;and4) the ecological perspective suggests that it is …

We propose a review of empirical studies dealing with the monetary valuation of forest ecosystem services in China. The analysis focuses on: assessing methodological differences …

ABSTRACT There is increasing interest in the use of economic valuation of ecosystem goods and services for a wide variety of purposes. These include relatively familiar uses in project appraisal and more novel applications in advocacy, performance tracking and accounting in public and private settings. Decision makers who use valuation information need to understand the background, strengths and weaknesses of these approaches. The methods have a strong foundation in economic theory and offer a rapidly growing evidence base, improving ability to evaluate a broad range of ecosystem goods and services. Nevertheless, there are theoretical and practical limitations that need to be understood and kept in mind when interpreting results. In this paper, we briefly review the economic valuation methods and situate them in their historical and theoretical contexts. We assess the main critiques, attempts at resolving them, and implications for the usefulness of the methods in different contexts. We examine the main barriers and opportunities for wider uses of valuation evidence, and draw conclusions on the appropriate role of valuation in future, as a tool for aiding reflection and deliberation processes.

Ecosystem services provide multiple benefits to human wellbeing and are increasingly considered by policy-makers in environmental management. However, the uncertainty related with the monetary valuation of these benefits is not yet adequately defined or integrated by policy-makers. Given this background, our aim was to quantify different sources of uncertainty when performing monetary valuation of ecosystem services, in order to provide a series of guidelines to reduce them. With an example of 4 ecosystem services (i.e., water provisioning, waste treatment, erosion protection, and habitat for species) provided at the river basin scale, we quantified the uncertainty associated with the following sources: (1) the number of services considered, (2) the number of benefits considered for each service, (3) the valuation metrics (i.e. valuation methods) used to value benefits, and (4) the uncertainty of the parameters included in the valuation metrics. Results indicate that the highest uncertainty was caused by the number of services considered, as well as by the number of benefits considered for each service, whereas the parametric uncertainty was similar to the one related to the selection of valuation metric, thus suggesting that the parametric uncertainty, which is the only uncertainty type commonly considered, was less critical than the structural uncertainty, which is in turn mainly dependent on the decision-making context. Given the uncertainty associated to the valuation structure, special attention should be given to the selection of services, benefits and metrics according to a given context.

… to reconcile monetary valuation techniques with methods that address ecosystem–economy … the category of ecosystem components (intermediate products, ecosystem services, benefits …

Growing demand of resources increases pressure on ecosystem services (ES) and biodiversity. Monetary valuation of ES is frequently seen as a decision-support tool by providing explicit values for unconsidered, non-market goods and services. Here we present global value transfer functions by using a meta-analytic framework for the synthesis of 194 case studies capturing 839 monetary values of ES. For 12 ES the variance of monetary values could be explained with a subset of 93 study- and site-specific variables by utilizing boosted regression trees. This provides the first global quantification of uncertainties and transferability of monetary valuations. Models explain from 18% (water provision) to 44% (food provision) of variance and provide statistically reliable extrapolations for 70% (water provision) to 91% (food provision) of the terrestrial earth surface. Although the application of different valuation methods is a source of uncertainty, we found evidence that assuming homogeneity of ecosystems is a major error in value transfer function models. Food provision is positively correlated with better life domains and variables indicating positive conditions for human well-being. Water provision and recreation service show that weak ownerships affect valuation of other common goods negatively (e.g. non-privately owned forests). Furthermore, we found support for the shifting baseline hypothesis in valuing climate regulation. Ecological conditions and societal vulnerability determine valuation of extreme event prevention. Valuation of habitat services is negatively correlated with indicators characterizing less favorable areas. Our analysis represents a stepping stone to establish a standardized integration of and reporting on uncertainties for reliable and valid benefit transfer as an important component for decision support.

… Characteristic for ecosystem accounting is the spatial approach taken to analyzing ecosystem services. This study examines how ecosystem services can be valued and mapped, and …

The process of ecosystem service value evaluation has developed from the use of a single economic value that only accounts for material products to an assessment of ecological value and the value of ecosystem services. However, due to the complexity of ecosystems and different understandings of ecosystem service values, different classification methods of ecosystem services and service values have been developed internationally, and this has resulted in a lack of clarity regarding the correlation between ecosystem service value and various ecosystems. The correspondence between the system and each value type is not clear; therefore, based on an analysis of the inadequacy of domestic and foreign ecosystem service classification systems and methods, this study constructed a new accounting framework for non-monetary ecosystem service functions based on emergy analysis and integrated monetary accounting methods. The practical application of the method was also researched. The research results re-classified the value of ecosystem services, established an accounting method for various ecosystem service values, clarified the principle of addition in accounting, and avoided double counting. In the empirical analysis, a large number of correlation coefficients, parameters, and index values found in the foreign literature were used, so, our method also has value for international use.

With the development of marine economy and climate changing, the ecological value of mangrove ecosystem has become increasingly prominent. In this study, the ecological values of China’s mangrove ecosystem services was evaluated based on the four services and nine functions of mangrove ecosystem. On this basis, the dynamic changing characteristics of the nine mangrove ecological values from 2001 to 2019 were analyzed. The results indicated that the top four service values were that of preventing coastal erosion, raw material supply, regulating water resources, and regulating climate and maintaining air quality. Significant changes were found in China’s mangrove areas which increased during 2001–2013 and decreased during 2013–2019, while the unit area value of mangrove ecosystem services generally showed an upward trend. Subsequently, the evaluation results were applied to mangrove asset management with balance sheets, ecological compensation standard determination, and carbon trading in blue carbon sink. Based on the above analysis, the corresponding countermeasures and suggestions were proposed for mangrove protection and value application to guide effective management on mangroves and further to realize a higher ecological value of mangrove ecosystem.

… Due to the exclusion of consumer surplus in SNA valuation, calculated values are … welfare-based valuation approaches. We demonstrate the feasibility of valuing ecosystem services in …

… ecological perspective. The applicability of the framework and techniques for valuing ecosystem … by the complex, non-linear nature of many ecosystem services. Decisions concerning …

… and costs of protecting ecosystems. Next we review valuation of ecosystem goods and services. We … generally tangible, material products that result from ecosystem processes, whereas …

… to the economic valuation of this system as a gourmet product for a … products that are traditionally used in the region have been increasingly studied and contribute to aggregate value to …

The purpose of the study is an economic assessment of the effectiveness of agroforestry based on determining the value of ecosystem services of an afforested model land object and extrapolating the data obtained to the territory of the south of the Volga upland with identical natural and economic conditions to the model. The study presents a methodology for the economic assessment of ecosystem goods and services of forested agricultural landscapes based on the modern classification of ecosystem services: CICES. It is established that the economic value of the regional ecosystem product provided by forested lands in the dry steppe is USD 1323 per 1 ha of agroforest landscape per year (price for 2021 on average for 30 years). Of these, regulatory and maintenance services account for 52% of the total economic value, security services—45%, and cultural services—3%. The projected economic value of ecosystem services that will be provided by afforested lands in the south of the Volga upland, the price for 2025, taking into account inflation, is estimated at almost USD 20 million. This value is a sufficient justification for conducting forest reclamation works in the region and providing recommendations for their necessity for small enterprises and farms.

… and condition of ecosystems available for … monetary valuation of the recreational service, we applied the simulated exchange value method, which has been developed for the monetary …

Current controversies in valuing the cost of environmental changes like climate change and biodiversity loss have exposed serious flaws in standard welfare economics. Many of these arise from the assumption that social value can be calculated using the revealed or stated preferences of self-regarding, narrowly rational individuals ( Parks and Gowdy, 2013, p. 1 ). In recent decades, markets and market-oriented thinking have reached into spheres of life traditionally governed by nonmarket norms ( Sandel, 2012 ).