维和警察的“规范翻译”与保护平民效果

ABSTRACT Several recent studies consider the determinants of misconduct by military personnel deployed to United Nations peacekeeping operations (PKOs). While the majority of peacekeepers carry out their duties honorably and often at great personal risk, these studies operate from the premise that misconduct by even a few peacekeepers can undermine a mission, and reduce support for future missions. Even so, misconduct by civilian police deployed to PKOs remains massively understudied in comparison to their military counterparts, though UN police are more likely to face credible allegations of misconduct compared to UN troops. Based on the inclusive or extractive incentives of contributor states, we find support for the argument that the behavior of security personnel at home readily predicts misconduct when deployed to PKOs. This same logic has implications for the UN's increasingly preferred ‘Formed Police Units,’ whose use may actually increase the likelihood of sexual exploitation and abuse.

… norms and values, on the other. So, we could say that the predisposition of forces’ personnel to assimilating the other’s different norms … into argument rather than translate objectively. …

… Initially, a multinational group of 1721 civilian police (CIVPOL) was authorized by the … civilians, as well as the military in its peacekeeping activities. During the Cold War period most …

… By translating interactionist perspectives in the everyday of intervention, … norms determine the behaviour of individual citizens: the nation, religion or the Kanun, a traditional set of norms …

… translation(s) rather than transformation(s). In this article, I explore the following research question: how does the everyday inform norm translation … or resist global normative frameworks …

… who must comply with human rights norms, and military officers who must … will translate as the local legitimacy of peacekeepers. But the … of military and police peacekeepers, but training …

… and police forces to a peacekeeping mission, fewer civilians … several hundred police dramatically reduces civilian killings. … peacekeeping is an effective mechanism of civilian protection…

ABSTRACT This article examines the contributions of police to the Protection of Civilians (PoC) in United Nations (UN) peace operations. Drawing on field research in four missions where police have had to implement PoC mandates in challenging and unprecedented ways, I identify lessons associated with emerging practice. The article contributes to debates about non-military forms of civilian protection arguing that police – at once uniformed and civilian, coercive but also community-oriented – offer unique contributions to PoC. It also highlights the need for a systematic evaluation of what works and what does not for protection through policing to be harnessed in future missions.

… of robust civilian protection in UN peacekeeping has had … the role of UN police in the protection of civilians state that ‘… means” to protect civilians are applicable to UN police, even if …

ABSTRACT This article introduces a Special Issue on the Protection of Civilians (PoC) efforts in United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations. The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1265 in February 1999, laying the basis for PoC becoming a fundamental part of UN peacekeeping. On the 25th anniversary of this resolution, it’s time to reflect on the various advances, achievements and challenges facing the UN’s PoC agenda. This introduction to the Special Issue outlines the UN’s three-tiered PoC approach: dialogue and engagement, physical protection, and creating a protective environment. Building on this foundation, the Special Issue explores diverse topics, including pre-deployment training, unarmed peacekeeping, host-state consent, military and police roles in protection, the use of force by troops, civilian protection sites in South Sudan, and the unintended effects of peacekeeping missions. Each article contributes insights across the three PoC tiers bringing together cutting edge insights from leading academics and practitioners in the field.

… civil war to civil society is inextricably linked to the development of civilian, apolitical police … contingents and ethnic groups, and who will protect citizens, uphold the rule of law and help …

… to produce wide variations in the use of FPUs until civilian protection guidance is developed for police components.Footnote81 Assigning MPs or FPUs with a more proactive role in …

The ‘protection of civilians’ mandate in United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations fulfils a critical role in realising broader protection objectives, which have in recent years become an important focus of international relations and international law. The concepts of the ‘protection of civilians’ constructed by the humanitarian, human rights and peacekeeping communities have evolved somewhat separately, resulting in disparate understandings of the associated normative bases, substance and responsibilities. If UN peacekeepers are to effectively provide physical protection to civilians under threat of violence, it is necessary to untangle this conceptual and normative confusion. The practical expectations of the use of force to protect civilians must be clear, and an overarching framework is needed to facilitate the spectrum of actors working in a complementary way towards the common objectives of the broader protection agenda.

Protection of civilians has become enshrined as a core task for international peacekeeping missions. How to ensure that civilians are safe from violence and human rights abuses is central to developing military doctrine for peacekeeping; how safe civilians are from attack is central to how peacekeeping missions are assessed both by locals and international observers. However, protection of civilians is often seen as something that is done by active peacekeepers on behalf of passive civilians, potentially missing the ways in which peacekeepers’ actions interact with strategies that civilians undertake on their own behalf. Integrating peacekeeper and civilian self-protection strategies is not trivial, either from a practical or a moral standpoint. Drawing on primary research among women in Liberia, as well as case studies of civilian protection elsewhere, this essay examines the ways in which working with civilians on protection—creating ‘hybrid’ systems of protection—inevitably entangles peacekeepers in civilians’ other social, political, and moral concerns, undermining at least a naïve impartiality. To retain their moral stance, peacekeepers ought to focus on using the safety they provide to allow different local actors (civilian and armed) to interact safely and, ideally, constructively.

Protection of civilians (POC) is at the centre of UN peace operations, with majority of UN military and police personnel having this mandate. This chapter examines whether peacekeepers are provided with the means to fulfil it. Drawing on her experience from the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), Frafjord Johnson reveals systemic weaknesses in the way the UN deploys, resources, and supports missions. A major problem is lack of guidance when host governments prove to be the main perpetrator. The primary responsibility to protect civilians rests with host governments, but the UN system also needs to train its forces in POC-operations and security reform. The chapter concludes that protection will remain an illusion for many civilians at risk unless these challenges are addressed.

… quantitative study of peacekeeping capacities to protect civilians, Hultman (… and police has an effect on civilian protection, namely that the more police/troops deployed on peacekeeping …

ABSTRACT The Indian government has presented itself as a champion of gender mainstreaming in UN peacekeeping. At the same time, the domestic security sector in India continues to create a gender-segregated environment and experiences of uniformed women in the field show remaining barriers for gender equity. Given this contradiction, the article examines the ambivalence inherent to Indian gender mainstreaming of peacekeeping units. We argue that transnational norms, such as gender mainstreaming, are embedded in larger norm bundles, and we combine the literature of norm localization and norm contestation in our conceptual framework to illustrate how India localizes parts of the gender mainstreaming norm bundle whilst contesting others. We find that India’s localization of the gender mainstreaming norm has meant to pursue an asymmetric gender-parity approach between different branches of the Indian security forces and that it has fomented a division of labour within the police corps. Moreover, we illustrate how India contests the idea of placing women in security-sensitive areas, in combat roles, and gender-integrated police units.

… norms for the debate on international norm diffusion in peacebuilding. Empirically, this article engages with the ‘local meaning’ of democracy and minority rights, two norms … localization’ (…

… of the peacekeepers with whom they interact (electoral or human rights officers, civilian police, … The situations involved are often highly localized, especially when comprising problems …

… and the public, ally crime control with the democratization and “localization” of policing.The … normative intent. We begin by sketching out specific ways to render current and future ESDP …

… for International Development (DFID), which sponsors police … Admittedly, norms relevant to international policing exist in a … in response to Security Council mandates and calls from …

… norms and practices in state and society, as well as in the … its mandate restricted to external defence, and a new police force … The bulk of international assistance for police reform goes to …

… for developing international norms and … mandate for the operation included peacebuilding tasks, such as political reconciliation, economic rehabilitation, the establishment of a police …

The case of R2P calls for greater attention to agency and feedback in norm dynamics. New international norms are more likely to spread if the responsibility for their creation and diffusion is seen to have been more broadly shared than being credited to any particular group. Many new norms have multiple sources and contexts, yet there is a tendency to credit them to their final point of articulation. Moreover, once created, norms do not remain uncontested and static. The application of new norms in different locations and contexts can lead to their subsequent modifications, which in turn can reshape its initial features and support mechanisms. This feedback constitutes a form of agency, which might broaden the legitimacy and appeal of the norm and the possibility of its greater diffusion. The case of R2P shows that although it is generally attributed to the work of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, the norm had multiple prior sources, including the idea of ‘responsible sovereignty’. Furthermore, its development has had a strong African context. Lastly, subsequent controversies over the norm’s application, especially in Libya, attests to the possibility of critical feedback, such as calls for stricter enforcement of the norm’s criteria of last resort and proportionality, and greater accountability in operations conducted in defence of the norm.

Abstract Norms can be adopted without modifications or adapted to regional contexts for strategic or principled reasons. Norm adoption and adaptation can also happen by chance. When adoption takes place without consideration of the norm’s effectiveness or appropriateness, we speak about imitation. When adaptation takes place in such a manner, we lack conceptual tools to analyse it. We propose a novel concept of incidental adaptation – divergence between promoted and adopted norms due to fortuitous events. This completes the typology of scenarios leading to norm adoption and adaptation. We apply the typology to the transmission of the protection of civilians norm in peace operations from the United Nations (UN) to the African Union (AU). The AU adopted the UN’s approaches in pursuit of interoperability and resources, and out of recognition of the UN’s normative authority. It also happened incidentally when the AU temporarily followed the UN’s approaches. The AU engaged in adaptation to reflect the nature of its operations and normative orientations of AU member states. Incidental adaptation accounted for the presence of the rights-based tier in the AU’s protection of civilians concept. These findings nuance our understanding of norm diffusion, inter-organisational relations and the role of chance in international affairs.

Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have now had 20 years of experience with community policing programmes (COP), yet high rates of public crime and violence, police violence and corruption, as w...

… mission in Liberia, and the positive impact that they had on local cultural gender norms through their high visibility and community engagement activities such as holding self-defence …

… needs, that “[w]hile respondents identified a vast list of skills that needed improvement, all categories of peacekeeping personnel - civilian, military and police – listed exactly the same …

The Ghana Police Service is constantly criticised by the Ghanaian public for poor performance and an inability to deal effectively with rising crime rates. Media reports and scholarly research have corroborated these criticisms, citing instances of police brutality, corruption, negligence, ineffectiveness and complicity in crimes. However, with few exceptions, the same police are widely applauded in United Nations peacekeeping operations for their professionalism, outstanding performance, and contributions to restoring peace and the rule of law. This raises the question of why the police’s performance at home differs from its performance in peacekeeping contexts. This article analyses the factors that underpin the perceived variations in police performance at home and internationally. Based on in-depth interviews conducted with relevant stakeholders and the application of assemblage theory to the empirical evidence gathered, it argues that perceived variations in performance have nothing to do with the technical competencies and knowledge of police personnel. Rather, this discrepancy can be explained by factors including: the effects of the colonial legacy on the police; different mandates/tasks in mission and in Ghana; distinct socio-cultural and political dynamics that influence policing; different legal frameworks and principles that govern domestic and international policing; limited availability of human and logistical resources and funding for domestic policing; and different methods for dealing with indiscipline and corruption.

… of how to balance the demands of international and local policing norms. … largest peacekeeping civil police training centre in Langfang City, near Beijing, capable of training 250 police …

… In this way, the universal norms promoted by the West would no longer have to be a … civilian and police peacekeepers, yet she acknowledges the challenges of successful norm transfer …

ABSTRACT Personnel in peacekeeping missions come from diverse organizations and nations, yet must coordinate together in each peacekeeping mission. Diversity in organizations (militaries, police forces, civil organizations), gender and culture (national, ethnicity, religion) make communication and cooperation difficult yet vital in order to achieve peacekeeping missions’ goals. Current training puts few resources into training personnel in the critical soft skills of communication, gender awareness and cultural awareness that facilitate working together. Experiential learning through role-play is recognized as the best way to improve soft skills but is expensive and logistically difficult. Role-playing in a digital environment, specifically a Serious Game, can provide experiential learning that is low cost and accessible to all. Training peacekeepers in soft skills digitally requires deep knowledge of soft skills in peacekeeping. Yet we know little about the experiences of soft skills by peacekeeping personnel on peacekeeping. This article draws on in-depth interviews with 177 experienced military, police and civilian peacekeeping personnel around Europe. The research demonstrates the limited and uneven nature of training in soft skills, identifies the soft skills needed by the interviewees on missions, and demonstrates that the majority of the interviewees want more training and practice in soft skills relevant for peacekeeping.

… to actually be able to make traction in peacekeeping missions. … norms that see police as being responsive to the people they serve. Although it may be difficult to embed these norms …

ABSTRACT Over the years, the police have become a central component of international peace- and statebuilding operations. However, predominantly trained and socialized as members of a domestic police service, police officers enter the global arena only – if ever – temporarily: their international deployment is often merely an interlude to their regular domestic police service. Pre-deployment training for international missions is therefore deemed vital for their success. When abroad, officers oftentimes find themselves carrying out work that has little resemblance to everyday police work back at home. By conceptualizing police training experts as “brokers”, the article helps to uncover the practices these brokers deploy to bridge the boundary between domestic policing and international missions. The research for this article was informed by practice theoretical considerations and ethnographically informed research strategies. It reveals that in several European countries, trainers’ brokerage is primarily practiced as a passing on of recent personal experience, by the creation of artificial borderlands that are meant to mimic the reality on the ground, and by diluting the boundary temporarily.

… in ways that reorient public safety toward protecting citizens … of civilian police for international missions is difficult: police … expectations regarding police reform realized in practice (it …