国外社区矫正理论与实践借鉴研究

由于未成年人同一般社区矫正对象存在差异，具有其特殊性，我国《社区矫正法》对未成年人社区矫正作出了特别规定。我国未成年人社区矫正当前还处于初步发展阶段，在其实施过程中仍存在着一些问题。而域外未成年人社区矫正制度相较于我国实施更早、相关经验更为丰富，因此其相关措施值得我国借鉴。通过分析我国未成年人社区矫正存在的问题，并借鉴域外未成年人社区矫正的相关措施，本文为我国未成年人社区矫正提出了扩大适用范围、增强矫正措施的针对性、配置专业矫正工作人员、落实未成年人权益保障工作的完善路径，以期该制度能够更好地发挥其预防和减少未成年人犯罪、帮助未成年矫正对象融入社会的作用。

至今我国对社区矫正的定位仍然没有定论，《社区矫正法》也没有对此做出回答。社区矫正的性质，是决定能否科学构建具有中国特色的社区矫正制度的基本问题。笔者通过分析国外社区矫正的地位，以及国内学者的主要观点，认为社区矫正应该定性为“非监禁措施”。

青少年是社会中很重要的一类群体，在社会生活中也是很重要的角色，是一个国家发展的未来，但是近年来，青少年犯罪数量在不断增多。司法社会工作介入也成为矫正偏差少年群体的新路径，帮助这些涉罪青少年重新融入社会、再社会化，这是司法社工介入涉罪青少年社区矫正的首要目标。如今的社会越来越注重人的人格和尊严，我国的刑罚制度、刑罚观念也朝着人性化、科学化的方向发展，在这种科学化观念的影响下，世界各国也都在努力探索适合本国国情的矫正制度。本研究立足于当下形势，详细地分析司法社会工作介入涉罪青少年社区矫正的必要性，希望在一定程度上可以在司法社工介入青少年犯罪社区矫正的制度化建设方面有所推动，弥补实践中的不足之处。

社区矫正作为刑罚的执行方式之一，逐渐被各国所采纳，在矫正未成年人犯罪中发挥着不可替代的作用。着眼于我国目前社区矫正的实施情况，虽然社区矫正取得了一定的成果，但是仍然存在一些问题。因此，我们要不断完善社区矫正制度，提高未成年人社区矫正的适用率，制定适合未成年人的矫正项目和评估方案、培养专门的社区矫正人才，使社区矫正制度在未成年人犯罪中发挥积极作用。

日本更生保护制度是指依靠社会力量对违法犯罪者采取一系列恰当的处遇，避免其再犯，使其不再堕落，协助其更生的司法制度。通过对更生保护制度的沿革与发展进行研究，为进一步推动我国构建犯罪人的更生保护制度、建立健全刑满释放人员保护机构、完善社区矫正法、调动最广大人民群众的力量来维护社会长治久安具有重要意义。

当下，我国犯罪结构呈现“双升”“双降”趋势，实务中短期自由刑大量涌现，短刑犯在监狱中比例越来越大。短期自由刑的弊端早已被国内外的大量研究充分证实，但其本身所具备的诸多价值却不容忽视。相较于直接废除，保留并完善短期自由刑才是妥当之举。在诸多改革措施中，提前释放短刑犯有助于从根本上解决交叉感染等短期自由刑的弊端，而短刑犯自身较小的再犯可能性、人身危险性、主观恶性以及教育刑实际效果的不佳更是让提前释放短刑犯具备可行性，而司法实务中短刑犯却因诸多原因不易减刑、假释，导致大量短刑犯只能羁押在监，承受短期自由刑的弊端。通过对比国外的相关制度。本文设想采取减刑假释合二为一的提前释放制度。通过事前给予，事后根据不良表现撤销的方式，一方面提高了执行机关操作的便捷性，扩大假释的适用范围，大幅减少在监短刑犯的数量；另一方面有助于激励短刑犯改过自新，提高教育矫正的效果。

假释是对被判处徒刑或监禁刑的服刑罪犯，在审判机关宣告的刑期尚未执行完毕的过程中，因符合法定条件予以附条件提前释放出狱的一种刑罚制度。它是对受刑罚处罚的犯罪分子执行刑罚的一种特殊制度，被正式采用至今已历时多年。长期的刑罚执行实践证明，假释是非监禁性、开放性执行刑罚的一种卓有成效的形式。

受当前积极刑法观影响，我国轻罪化趋势持续发展，日益增多的轻微罪数量与愈发冗杂的犯罪记录规定导致司法实践中罪刑失衡现象频发。原有的未成年人犯罪记录封存制度已难以回应当下理论界与实务界对于修缮前科制度以及将犯罪记录封存制度扩展适用至成年人的迫切需求，也为社会秩序的和谐稳定埋下隐患。轻微罪犯罪记录封存制度之构建应充分体现中国特色，在总结当前前科制度之隐患和借鉴国内外现有经验的基础上，厘清轻微罪之概念，明确附条件适用之范围，建立完善的配套监督、纠错制度，并将确保个人信息安全作为制度构建之关键。

我国轻罪数量在积极刑法观和劳教制度取消的双重影响下逐年累增，也导致了我国轻罪附随后果随之扩张。轻罪附随后果的扩张和其消灭制度的缺失导致轻罪附随后果影响的人群庞大。轻罪的治安管理属性和覆盖范围极广、影响范围极大的附随后果之间比例失衡。轻罪附随后果消灭制度有着悠久历史以及各国丰富的实践经验，大陆法系与英美法系都存在对轻罪附随后果消灭制度的规定。我国应当通过增设轻罪制度以对轻罪附随后果进行统一化管理。将附随后果纳入刑法的明文规定中，并对轻罪附随后果构建高效的司法管理制度。

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Background: Community correctional experiences among individuals receiving methadone treatment (MT) for opioid use disorder (OUD) are poorly understood. We qualitatively investigated perceptions of community corrections and treatment experiences among individuals with criminal-legal system experience currently receiving outpatient MT. Methods: From January to December 2017, we recruited 42 individuals with history of criminal-legal system involvement enrolled in outpatient MT at a low-barrier nonprofit organization operating multiple clinics in Connecticut. An experienced qualitative research team conducted one-to-one, in-person, semistructured interviews about incarceration and treatment experiences with individuals receiving MT. Participants completed a demographics survey. The interviews were audiorecorded, transcribed, de-identified, and independently coded using NVivo. Results: Participants described the community corrections system as restrictive and abstinence-focused. Most participants described positive perceptions of and experiences with community corrections officers (CCOs), yet described negative perceptions of and experiences with the community corrections system overall. Participants perceived CCOs to have limited knowledge of OUD and MT. Participants described a range of CCO judgment toward their OUD, with some appearing understanding and nonjudgmental while others were perceived to have stigma and prejudice. Few participants noted assistance from CCOs with seeking MT or community-based substance use disorder care. Some participants desired improved treatment facilitation, but viewed forced or coercive treatment negatively. Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first qualitative study to examine community corrections experience among people receiving outpatient medication for OUD. While individuals receiving MT have negative experiences with the community corrections system, they perceive individual CCOs positively. Interventions addressing gaps in CCOs knowledge of OUD and MT are needed to optimize support for individuals on probation or parole with OUD. Provision of OUD treatment facilitation appears desirable to some individuals in community supervision.

Community corrections agencies across the United States are adopting racial equity as a priority in their polices, practices, and staff training, though how racial equity can be translated into the routine practices of probation and parole officers has not been widely discussed. This study examines the associations of perceived racial equity priorities on the supervision strategies reported by probation and parole officers in an online survey (N = 1054). Approximately one-third of officers reported that their agencies prioritized racial equity. Racial equity scores were stronger in juvenile agencies and in agencies that prioritized evidence-informed practices. Racial equity was associated with reduced accountability-oriented case management practices. Results of this study suggest that racial equity policies and practices may impact client outcomes through changes in general supervision strategies. More research is needed to identify race-conscious strategies that community corrections officers can employ to meet the needs of people involved in the legal system.

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ABSTRACT Since the 1970s, feminist criminologists have challenged researchers and practitioners to center gender in their theories, research designs, and practice approaches. Because of this, a large body of research examines correctional approaches to assess the question “what works” for women? Researchers have, for example, examined: how gender shapes pathways into the system or how correctional programming and staff can meet women’s needs. At times these queries include studying the effectiveness of using gender responsive approaches. Little is known, however, regarding the effects of these strategies in the community corrections context. Women make up a substantially larger proportion of the community corrections population than they do prison or jail. Additionally, because the philosophy of this context is well suited to engage rehabilitative and treatment-based programs—needs of amplified importance for system involved women—understanding what we know as researchers and practitioners is particularly important. To assess the state of knowledge in this area, we conducted a scoping review of research on gender responsive programming within community corrections settings. Our analysis reviews the findings from these articles and highlights implications for practitioners and researchers working in this area.

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The COVID-19 pandemic forced community corrections agencies worldwide to use remote technologies to prevent the spread of the virus. A growing body of the literature suggests that video-conferencing is poised to be a core practice within community correctional settings. However, little is known about the best practice strategies for incorporating videoconferencing into routine supervision. We address this gap by interviewing and conducting focus groups with a sample of community correction officers from the US (N = 16). We identified the presence of the law enforcement—social work dichotomy in remote settings, reflected in challenges and opportunities when holding clients accountable and establishing client–officer relationships. Our findings show that officers relying on evidence-based practices (EBPs) were able to use videoconferencing tools to overcome remote challenges. We suggest that establishing in-person relationships, adapting EBP, and taking care of logistics are critical steps to strengthen remote accountability and client–officer relationships. We conclude by discussing future research areas.

This article explores one US residential community corrections facility and the ways that case managers navigate working with transgender women under supervision in a facility that relies on the sex binary for housing placement. Similar to other research on this population in prisons that has been conducted both within and outside of the US context, we find that case managers contend with significant uncertainty in their work with these clients because of a lack of specific and formal training. To contend with that uncertainty, case managers reported relying on Gender Responsive Training and the Prison Rape Elimination Act to guide their understanding of and work with trans clients. However, we also found a great deal of discretion in the ways case managers managed programming for their trans clients that disrupted the gendered organization of the facility. We conclude with specific programmatic recommendations based on these findings.

The purpose of the current study was to conduct an initial international exploration into mental health in community corrections. The qualitative analysis revealed seven themes that highlighted many barriers and identified necessary building blocks for success for justice-involved individuals as they reintegrate into the community and on their path to desistance. These include meaningful collaboration, rapport, trust and an emphasis on housing and employment. Much depends on meeting the client where they are, as people go through the stages of adaptation at different times and speeds. Ultimately, despite different practices, participants agreed on the value of person-centered, community-integrated approaches.

ABSTRACT Early scholarship on community corrections officers suggested that officers’ perceptions of their professional role influences how they carry out supervision. While some research has supported this contention, the studies examining the relationship have provided minimal attention to juvenile probation and parole, rarely considered actual as well as intended supervision behaviors, and analyzed samples with limited generalizability. The present study sought to fill this gap. Data were collected through the use of an online questionnaire from a sample of juvenile and adult probation and parole officers employed in seven different agencies in five states during spring 2015. The study found client type to be a significant predictor of both officer actual and intended behaviors, with juvenile PPOs preferring more frequent surveillance techniques and less frequent rewards for probationer progress toward goals. Professional orientation was also a significant predict of both types of behavior. Implications of these findings are discussed.

This mixed-method study examined changes implemented in Pennsylvania community corrections agencies during the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic. We surveyed (N = 54; 83% response rate) and interviewed (N = 10) county Chiefs of probation and parole regarding changes to agency policies, processes of this change, and expected sustainability. Findings revealed meaningful changes to community corrections policy initiated by the pandemic through new modes of supervision contact —such as “curbside probation”— and new policies regarding violations of supervision that align with evidence-based principles. The moment’s urgency provided a rare but effective impetus for reform, but perceptions of sustainability varied across Chiefs’ role orientations. Our findings demonstrate how this moment expanded the footprint of evidence-based practice through local criminal justice reform and reveal new insights into capacities for and processes of change.

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Little research has assessed community corrections staff members’ perceptions of the dangerousness of their job or experiences that make them fear for their safety. Although not the same as a prison environment, there are nonetheless dangerous aspects of working with probationers and parolees in community corrections. The purpose of this study is first to determine predictors of both perceived dangerousness and experienced fear among a sample of probation/parole officers and residential officers. Then we assess the differential impact of perceived dangerousness and experienced fear on the negative workplace outcomes of burnout (comprised of three components: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment), secondary trauma, job stress, and job satisfaction. The findings indicate both overlapping and distinct predictors of perceived dangerousness and experienced fear. Also, higher perceptions of job dangerousness were associated with lower job satisfaction, while more experienced fear was related to greater emotional exhaustion and secondary trauma.

There are 4.5 million adults in community corrections (e.g., probation and parole), nearly twice the number of people incarcerated in jails and prisons combined. Research suggests that more than half of men in jail have experienced at least one traumatic brain injury (TBI). Very little is known about TBI history in probation. This study reviewed TBI history, cognitive and psychosocial data, and judicial records. Results showed that 47% of persons on probation report TBI. People on probation with TBI also had comorbid behavioral health conditions like mental illness, substance abuse, trauma history, and attempted suicide. They were more likely to be determined to be high risk by probation officers, had a higher rate of felony convictions, had lower rates of successful probation completion, and were significantly more likely to re-offend. Attention to responsivity factors like TBI may help probation provide accommodations that support successful engagement in probation and treatment.

The COVID-19 pandemic occurred in the midst of a reform movement in probation and parole supervision in the United States. Because social distancing orders created significant disruptions in probation and parole, the pandemic provides an opportunity to explore the innovative ways that probation and parole officers adjusted their supervision strategies with clients. We surveyed probation and parole officers in the United States (N = 1,054; 65% female, 66% probation) in May–June 2020 about the supervision strategies they used with people on their caseloads before and immediately after the pandemic’s onset. Data indicate that overall rates of contact did not change, but that in-person contacts were replaced with remote communication strategies. Client access to electronic communication platforms, especially video conferencing, facilitated more frequent contact and more reliance on behavioral tactics and treatment-oriented case management approaches in the post-COVID period. Results reveal the potential role for video conferencing as an integral element of probation and parole reform.

The aim of the current research was to examine the contribution of crime type and severity as well as offender, observer, and victim characteristics to prediction of perception of community correction (CC) as an appropriate punishment. We conducted a telephone survey among Israeli citizens. A random and representative sample of 573 respondents, aged 20 to 74, evaluated the seriousness of crime scenarios and the appropriateness of CC for each scenario. In different versions of crime scenarios, we manipulated offence type as well as offender and victim characteristics. The results of a logistic regression indicate that perceived lower crime severity, a crime that is not murder, older offender age, and being a secular observer are related with an increased likelihood of supporting community corrections. The discussion addresses these findings in the context of punitive goals (e.g., revenge, retribution), public perception of offender dangerousness, and social identity theory.

The assessment and collection of monetary sanctions (fines, fees, and restitution) have become a common element of the U.S. criminal justice system, especially in community corrections. Although the application of monetary sanctions is often dictated by state-level legislation, court rules, and agency policy, little research has sought to organize and systematically examine a set of these policies to compare them across several community corrections contexts more broadly. As such, this study fills a gap in the literature by using thematic content analysis to examine legislative policies governing the use of monetary sanctions in six states from across the United States. Laws and policies regarding the assessment, waiver, and collection of monetary sanctions utilized by agencies of varying size and jurisdictional scope were considered to identify common themes. We conclude with a discussion of whether the policies and laws examined align with rehabilitative and punitive goals of community supervision and highlight emerging opportunities for research and policy reform.

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Many criminal justice institutions implement evidence-based reforms. While most scholars are aware of implementation challenges, we still know relatively little about sustainability. Using longitudinal data from criminal legal staff implementing an evidence-based reform, this paper considers: What happens during the implementation of an organizational reform that affects continued use of these reforms? Guided by an organizational change framework, findings suggest sustainability aligns with key organizational goals including legitimacy, efficiency and effectiveness. While all sites saw the reformed practices as legitimate enough to initially consider adoption, two sites never adopted, four sites toyed with reform, and two sites continued to use the reform after the study was over. This paper explores sustainability and identifies legitimacy as an important factor that affects the routinization of new practices. Transformation of organizational change initiatives into routine practices should consider efforts to build legitimacy in lieu of primarily rationalizing on the values of efficiency and effectiveness.

The traditional community correction model adopts the method of artificially formulating correction strategies, which has problems such as strong subjectivity and inconsistent judicial level. Because of the wide distribution of community corrections personnel, the uneven standards for correction strategy formulation by local judicial personnel and the problem that it is almost impossible to form effective correction strategies in poor and remote areas, and the amount of data for correction personnel information is large, the way to manually formulate correction strategies The efficiency is low. This paper proposes a clustering algorithm for correcting personnel status information based on feature subspace, localizes the high-dimensional data search problem in related dimensions, solves the problem of automatic labeling of correction strategy tags, and provides some references for judicial personnel to formulate correction strategies.

The penal system in Indonesia must undergo reforms, considering the complexity of legal violations and the demands for the protection of human rights. The transformation from a prison-based system to a correctional system aims to improve the approach toward prisoners, focusing on rehabilitation and social reintegration. This research employs a descriptive qualitative approach. One of the major issues in the correctional system is overcrowding, which results from repressive penal regulations that do not prioritize the principle of ultimum remedium. To address this, alternative approaches such as Community-Based Corrections (CBC) are being explored. Through this program, prisoners can be rehabilitated outside correctional facilities under community supervision, which reduces pressure on prisons and accelerates the social reintegration process. However, the implementation of CBC faces challenges related to unclear regulations and complex bureaucracy

The relationship between the working alliance and rates of recidivism for individuals on probation or parole has been underexplored, and what information has been reported provides inconsistent findings. This study sought out to explore this relationship further by examining the degree to which client perceptions (N = 145) of the working alliance were related to, and predicted, general and violent recidivism measured as reconviction. Results revealed that working alliance ratings were not significantly different between clients who recidivated and those who did not and did not predict future recidivism. Results also revealed that client age and risk predicted subsequent recidivism, while client perceptions of the working alliance did not. Implications for supervising officers in community corrections and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Prison overcrowding leads to serious problems for prison authorities. It is related to serious health hazards and disturbs penal rehabilitation and reformation programs. As a result, security problems, terrorism, and subversive actions may occur. If prison is overcrowded hard and soft criminals interact with each other, which may lead to connecting mild offenders to hardcore criminals. Overcrowded prisons cause stress for prison officials and further strain prisoners as they live in unacceptable conditions. In Sri Lanka, we have very few non-institutional treatment methods, and those methods have not been effective due to administration problems and provisions. Therefore, it is time to improve the treatment of offenders through the enhancement of community-based corrections process alternatives to incarceration. Many countries have probation, parole, and community service which are commonly known as traditional alternatives to imprisonment. These non-institutional treatment methods are widely used in many developed and developing countries. The non-institutional measures are mostly community-based corrections. The concept has evolved with the thinking that correction if linked to the community, will be less costly, more humane, and more effective than imprisonment in dealing with offenders convicted of minor offenses. There is a need in the field of community corrections for a systematic and orderly development having due regard for local conditions and local needs. In developing such a system, it is necessary to ensure that no individual who does not require incarceration for the protection of others is confined in an institution and that no individual is subjected to more supervision or control than required. On the other hand, the creation of community-based programs should ensure that they respond not only to the needs of the offenders but also to the interest of the community. If they are not administered properly it will amount to the criminal justice system going soft on crimes and criminals. (Glaze, 2011). The research leads to identifying the effectiveness of community-based corrections when the initial threat is recidivism. Recidivism means the person who relapses in the rehabilitation process frequently. And how it’s developed through the community-based corrections functions. There are several direct and indirect causes of recidivism from a psychosocial perspective, but this research focused on community corrections itself because community-based corrections emerged as an alternative to prisons. When utilizing community-based corrections resources in an effect should be possible to reduce recidivism (Bouffard and Muftic 2006). The introduction clearly explains the evaluation of community corrections through the ancient period and then the rationale of the study explained the justification of the topic to the support conceptual study. To collect information and data about this problem a researcher able to use primary data and secondary data, to get primary data researcher use observation, focus group discussions and interview with clients & professionals. For secondary data researcher used a community-based corrections performance annual report. This data collection and data findings were clearly explained accordingly than explained the way of findings and the way of choosing the sample size and to analyze the whole data about the research and researcher used thematic analysis to find out the accurate problem which they are having when engage in proving services for respondents. Finally, it will focus on the social work interventions in the effective discharge planning for offenders, roles of professionals, specifically social workers, in discharge planning/re-entry planning, issues surrounding recidivism, community-based programs, and evaluation of the work surrounding them. I hope this research helps to study future researchers to do better involvement in their research and it’s allowed to empower Community based corrections parliament Act, policies, and programs in the process that especially focus on the challenges faced by community-based corrections officers and recidivists.

People involved in the criminal justice system have higher rates of opioid use disorder (OUD) and are less likely to receive recovery services. Medications to treat OUD, such as extended-release naltrexone, have been found to reduce relapse and recidivism. We hope to provide practical lessons learned from the evaluation process of the Department of Corrections’ Extended-Release Naltrexone Program and considerations for incorporating medications to treat OUD into a reentry program. The program evaluation followed participants for 1 year and conducted interviews and surveys on health, well-being, and community reintegration. The program experienced significant barriers to effective implementation; few participants received extended-release naltrexone after release, and no case management was provided after release. Despite barriers to implementation, participants reported the need for medications to support treatment of OUD. Results of this program evaluation reveal barriers and opportunities to inform longer-term strategies for similar programs, including considerations for programs pre- and postrelease, participant follow-up, and treatment options. In addition, the lack of reentry planning and coordination between the correctional system and the community introduced barriers. Opportunities exist for holistic supportive reentry starting with needs identification and coordination among correctional facilities, discharge planners, and community providers.

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Advocates for reform have highlighted violations of probation and parole conditions as a key driver of mass incarceration. As a 2019 Council of State Governments report declared, supervision violations are “filling prisons and burdening budgets.” Yet few scholarly accounts estimate the precise role of technical violations in fueling prison populations during the prison boom. Using national surveys of state prison populations from 1979 to 2016, the authors document that most incarcerated persons are behind bars for new sentences. On average, just one in eight people in state prisons on any given day has been locked up for a technical violation of community supervision alone. Thus, strategies to substantially reduce prison populations must look to new criminal offenses and sentence length.

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In Poland, the Judicial Probation and Parole Service (Kuratorska Służba Sądowa, KSS) is responsible for systemic rehabilitation of offenders under supervised freedom. Both professional and community-based probation parole officers operate within the structure of the Service. This dual model is standard for probation work within the European Union and emphasises the value of social participation in the process of rehabilitation without incarceration. Over the last decade, there has been significant restructuring within the Service, particularly in the criminal division. During the selected timeframe, from 2014 to the 2024, 11.698 community-based probation officers for adults were dismissed from service, representing 76% of the total. In the conducted research project, on the basis of an analysis of selected statistical data, the dynamics of this restructuring within the chosen timeframe were illustrated, the main causes and consequences were identified and practice recommendations were proposed.

This paper presents findings from an exploratory study undertaken with Department of Probation personnel in Thailand. The goal was to examine staff perspectives, experiences and practices regarding the support of women (formerly imprisoned for breaching illicit drug law) on electronically monitored (EM) parole. According to government rhetoric, EM parole should be rehabilitative, assist reintegration and operate per human rights standards and norms. This includes gender-responsiveness, as delineated in the United Nations Bangkok Rules. Yet, gender was mostly elucidated as immaterial and at best, women received nominal support from a probation service labouring ‘from the heart’ with limited funding and high workloads.

Abstract Effective reentry programs for individuals on probation and parole successfully support participants’ transition from state supervision back into the community, reduce re-offense and re-incarceration, and foster long-term reintegration. Given the large number of individuals on probation and parole, it is crucial to identify which types and amounts of reentry services are associated with better reentry outcomes over time. This retrospective cohort study examines associations between participation in Missouri’s Community Reentry Initiative (CRI) and reentry outcomes, specifically re-offense during the CRI year and 5-year return to prison, for individuals on probation (n = 1,407) and parole (n = 1,521). Results indicated that 13.7% of CRI participants re-offended during their first year of supervision (8.4% of those on probation and 18.6% of those on parole) and 52.4% returned to prison within the 5-year study period (47% of those on probation and 57.5% of those on parole). Aligning with prior research, findings suggest that employment and education services are linked to reduced re-offense for those on parole and reduced rates of reincarceration for those on probation. Results also indicate that receipt of essentials services (e.g., housing, transportation) reduced the likelihood of reoffending within the first year for both groups.

OBJECTIVE Criminal legal-involved individuals on probation or parole face complex and multifaceted challenges associated with community reentry, including mental disorders, substance use disorders, and collateral consequences of criminal legal system involvement. Forensic peer support (FPS) has emerged as a promising strategy for reentry support. Key objectives of FPS target common reentry hardships, especially behavioral health, and previous studies have identified positive outcomes. However, few studies have compared outcomes among groups that share demographic and other salient characteristics but differ in FPS receipt. METHODS Using propensity score matching on sociodemographic, criminal legal, and behavioral health characteristics, the authors examined differences in criminal legal- and substance use-related outcomes between propensity score-matched groups of FPS recipients and nonrecipients (N=150) in Georgia to assess FPS outcomes. RESULTS Receipt of FPS was associated with significantly lower rates of reconvictions (60.0% for recipients vs. 81.3% for nonrecipients) but was also associated with significantly increased positive drug screens among FPS recipients (mean±SD=23.6 ± 72.4), compared with nonrecipients (mean=4.7 ± 24.1). FPS recipients tended to have higher reincarceration rates and lower probation or parole revocations, but these differences were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate mixed support for FPS services, contrasting findings of previous studies. Future research may address the specific needs of heterogeneous criminal legal-involved subgroups as well as assess direct linkages of FPS to criminal legal and recovery outcomes.

This Article addresses disability discrimination in community supervision programs, a large—but frequently overlooked—component of the criminal legal system and important contributor to America’s mass incarceration crisis. The long-standing concerns of legal scholars and advocates about disability discrimination in prisons and policing, particularly against people with mental health disabilities, apply with equal measure to probation and parole. This Article examines the experiences of people with intellectual/developmental, cognitive, and mental health disabilities to understand how disability discrimination manifests in probation and parole programs and identifies numerous policies and practices that likely run afoul of two major federal disability rights laws: the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rehabilitation Act. In explaining why such disability discrimination goes seemingly unchecked, this Article identifies major jurisdictional barriers to enforcement in the federal courts: the Preiser-Heck bar on certain civil rights litigation, abstention doctrines that insulate state criminal court decisions from review, and Eleventh Amendment limits on damages actions against state entities. Given those barriers, this Article suggests that supervision programs ensure robust compliance with disability discrimination laws by utilizing a universal design approach, providing appropriate accommodations to supervisees, and eliminating discriminatory standards. It further argues that defense lawyers and other criminal justice actors should receive training about disability discrimination laws, so they are better able to recognize and remediate disability discrimination. Finally, it suggests the expansion of diversion programs for people with disabilities, particularly those who may struggle to comply with traditional probation programs.

A key component of community supervision officers’ (CSOs) roles is to support clients on probation or parole, assessing them for risk of re-offending and indicators of desistance. To better understand officers’ discretionary decision-making, we conducted nine virtual focus group interviews with a total of 48 CSOs across one state; analyses of these interviews yielded two main themes. The first theme captured officers’ perceptions of signs of risk, as CSOs shared insights as to how unemployment/under-employment, non-compliance or evasiveness, overcompliance, substance use, outside information, and antisocial associations raised flags for the potential of re-offending. The second theme detailed how pro-social and proactive attitudes, open and frequent communication, appropriate compliance, and stability (e.g., employment, housing, relational) acted as positive signs of desistance. Understanding these perspectives illuminates the multifaceted considerations that influence officers’ evaluations of risk and desistance in their caseloads and provides insights into means for enhancing the effectiveness of community supervision.

Martinson (1974) argued that Nothing Works in the rehabilitation of justice impacted individuals. In response, Andrews and Kiesling (1980) developed a set of core correctional practices (CCPs) that could be used by probation and parole officers to enhance correctional outcomes for justice impacted individuals. More recently, trauma responsive approaches have emerged as another hypothesized effective strategy for dealing with justice impacted individuals who experience high levels of trauma (Miller & Najavits, 2012). This study investigates the nature and prevalence of probable traumatic experiences among justice impacted individuals on probation with a focus on gender differences (N ≈ 329). The study also investigates if probation and parole officers who were recently trained in a model of community supervision that blends trauma responsiveness with core correctional practices—the Ontario Ministry of the Solicitor General’s Made-in-Ontario Core Correctional Practices (CCP) Model of Community Supervision- are more likely to apply trauma, diversity and inclusivity (TDI) principles in their interactions with clients after the training. The study uses client case notes prepared by probation and parole officers. Results showed that despite women reporting significantly higher probable trauma, trauma-informed approaches were applied similarly across gender groups. In addition, TDI implementation was consistent regardless of trauma status in the context of CCP. This highlights the need for more targeted trauma-informed approaches based on individual needs rather than a generalized application of trauma-informed intervention. The opinions and views expressed in this report reflect those of the author and not the Ontario Ministry of the Solicitor General. Sohaila Abdelhadi contributed intellectually to the research, prepared the poster from their thesis work, and managed its submission. All authors contributed to data collection and coding.

The study examines the evolving framework of probation and parole within India’s new criminal justice architecture under the Probation of Offenders Act, 1958, the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023. It explores how the legislative shift from purely custodial to community-based sanctions redefines correctional policy, embedding non-custodial measures such as community service, structured supervision, and reparative obligations. Through doctrinal and interpretative analysis, the paper evaluates whether these reforms can alleviate prison overcrowding while maintaining victim protection and due process. The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam is examined for its evidentiary role in validating electronic supervision records, whereas the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 introduces vital privacy safeguards for data management in community corrections. Judicial and administrative developments, including Supreme Court and High Court rulings, have strengthened procedural accountability by standardising timelines, conditions, and recall mechanisms. The research also integrates criminological rationales—rehabilitation, restorative justice, and proportionality—with victimological considerations to promote balanced reform. The findings underscore the importance of harmonising constitutional clemency powers with statutory frameworks, digital data compliance, and victim-centric safeguards. Ultimately, the study advocates a national, data-governed model of probation and parole that enhances transparency, reinforces supervision integrity, and establishes community service as a credible, restorative alternative to imprisonment within the Indian correctional paradigm.

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This study investigated the detectability of trauma, diversity, and inclusivity (TDI) training in probation and parole officer (PPO) case notes following the implementation of the Made-in-Ontario Core Correctional Practices (CCP) Model of Community Supervision. Adherence to TDI principles pre- and post-CCP training was examined and interrater scores were calculated to measure reliability. Case notes from five PPOs, covering 45 clients, were analyzed pre-training (n = 30) and post-training (n = 15).  Results suggested that after training, officers trended towards using more TDI skills and principles over the course of supervision, but effect sizes were small. Greater inter-rater reliability was observed for TDI skills than for TDI principles. However, challenges in coding adherence to general TDI principles were noted. Implications include the need for larger sample studies and refined coding manuals to improve reliability. 

Legal reform is crucial in maintaining justice, sustainability, and progress within a nation. In Indonesia, legal reform involves various stakeholders, including probation and parole officers. Probation and parole officers play a pivotal role in shaping a law-abiding society and significantly contribute to implementing a legal system grounded in restorative justice. This research aims to delve deeper into the role of probation and parole officers in legal reform in Indonesia, particularly after the enactment of Law Number 22 of 2022 on Corrections and Law Number 1 of 2023 on the Criminal Code. The research methodology includes in-depth interviews with probation and parole officers and policy document analysis. The research findings reveal that probation and parole officers strategically bring the law closer to society through educational and rehabilitative approaches. In the context of reducing overcrowding of inmates in prisons and detention centers, probation and parole officers contribute by adopting a humanistic approach. They assist in improving the attitudes and behaviors of inmates through specially designed rehabilitation programs. This approach aims to educate the inmates and prepare them for social reintegration after serving their sentences. Furthermore, the active involvement of probation and parole officers has significant positive impacts, including decreased crime rates, increased legal compliance, and the reinforcement of justice values within society. Therefore, the role of probation and parole officers must be recognized, supported, and strengthened by the government and relevant institutions to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of legal reform in Indonesia.

The current study aims to assess probation and parole officers' (PPOs) adherence to the Made-in-Ontario Core Correctional Practice (CCP) model of community supervision with justice-impacted people. Case notes from 5 PPOs (for 45 clients) were coded to examine if evidence of CCP strategies used during PPO and client interactions could be reliably detected in PPO case notes. Preliminary findings indicate promising evidence for the detection of CCP strategies within case notes. Inter-rater reliability was also found to be high. Future considerations include expanding the study to a larger sample, refining the coding manual, and examining potential covariates. These insights contribute to understanding the integration and effectiveness of CCP practices into community supervision settings.

This study aims to classify topics and concepts related to the research on the role of Community Counselors on Clients in Correctional Centers. Through descriptive analysis using Vosviewer and Nvivo-12 plus software, 286 Scopus indexed articles published by major publishers such as Emerald, MDPI, Sage, ScienceDirect, Springer, Taylor, Francis, and others were obtained. This research shows 50 concepts and is categorized into 11 groups. The dominant themes in the articles are Probation, Prison Officers, Parole Officer, Social Work, Probation Officers, Community Correctional Practices, Parole System, Core Correctional Practices, Community Correction, Rehabilitation, Probation Conditions. It is expected to help future researchers to develop this study. This method uses PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). The role of community supervisors and correctional centers in each article taken from the Scopus database has almost the same results from each country. There is no comparison and further research needs to use a comparative analysis approach involving the Scopus and Web of Sciences (WoS) databases and use later years' articles.

The article, based on the conducted research, as well as taking into account the creation of a probation system in Russia, examines the areas of control over persons conditionally released from serving their sentences, factors affecting their re-socialization, confirms the idea that the activities of employees of penal inspections to control such persons should be a kind of post-penitentiary support. The article analyzes the main problems faced by parolees in the initial period after their release, the directions of interaction of penal inspections with government agencies and organizations. It is concluded that it is necessary to legislate the possibility of reducing and extending the term of performance of duties assigned to parolees, depending on the assessment of their behavior.

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Background While the severe detrimental impact of COVID-19 on incarcerated people is well known, little is known about the experience of COVID-19 on those on community supervision. Our objective was to better understand the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic and its collateral consequences for those on community supervision (e.g., probation, parole). Beginning in December 2020, we conducted 185 phone surveys about COVID-19 with participants in The Southern Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Study across its three sites - Florida, Kentucky, and North Carolina. We conducted rapid assessment interviews with both closed- and open-ended questions. We calculated descriptive statistics for close-ended questions and conducted a content analysis for open-ended questions. Results The COVID-19 pandemic affected those on community supervision through their experiences in the community and while incarcerated with over one-quarter of participants being reincarcerated during this time. In addition to many (128/185) experiencing COVID-19 symptoms, about half (85/185) of participants reported a diagnosis in their network with 16 of those participants losing loved ones to the pandemic. Participants experienced disruptions to their social network, healthcare, and livelihoods. Though many maintained their support systems, others felt isolated and depressed. Experiences during COVID-19 exacerbated difficulties already faced by those with criminal involvement. Conclusions The public health community must recognize those experiencing probation and parole, not only those housed in carceral facilities, as disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. We must tailor programs and services to meet their needs.

Spanning over two decades, this systematic review includes 35 studies that focus explicitly on probation and parole revocations in the United States. Findings reveal that studies vary in their operationalization of “revocation” and that researchers have depended primarily on quantitative monomethod approaches to study revocations. Studies suggest that revocations are contributing to incarceration rates, although the extent to which this occurs is not clear. Violation trends show that the accumulation of technical violations, especially ongoing program and treatment noncompliance, contributes to revocation outcomes. Probation/parole client sociodemographic characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, and sex, are differentially associated with supervision outcomes, and these characteristics often work distinctly and in tandem to impact revocation trends. Research implications include providing clear and consistent measurements of revocation outcomes and engaging in more diverse research methodologies. Policy implications focus on empirically evaluating structured decision-making instruments and implementing more extensive reentry programs, especially those focused on employment.

OBJECTIVE Tens of millions of individuals with mental health problems interact with the U.S. criminal legal system (including 911, police, jail detention and sentences, courts, and probation and parole) each year. The authors sought to identify recommended mental health practices for criminal legal system-involved individuals and report the percentages of U.S. counties and of the U.S. population living in counties in which each recommended practice is present. METHODS Recommended practices for criminal legal-involved individuals with mental health problems were identified from meta-analyses, reviews, and best practice recommendations. Up to four respondents per county (i.e., jail, probation, community mental health, and community substance use treatment administrators) from 950 counties were asked whether each recommended practice was present for criminal legal-involved individuals. Weighted percentages of U.S. counties using recommended practices and of the U.S. population living in counties with each recommended practice are reported. RESULTS Fifty-nine recommended practices, including general mental health approaches (e.g., permanent supportive housing, Medicaid continuity) and diagnosis-specific mental health treatments (including medications and psychotherapies), were identified. Weighted data from respondents (N=791 from 519 counties) indicated that each recommended practice was present for criminal legal-involved individuals in only 21.9%-43.0% of U.S. counties. CONCLUSIONS These results inform implementation efforts by indicating the presence of recommended care practices for criminal legal-involved individuals with mental health problems in counties nationwide. Because supportive housing, access to Medicaid reactivation in jails, and psychosocial interventions for physical pain have low presence but high importance for recovery, implementation efforts might first target these approaches.

Correctional Centers become institutions in carrying out social guidance for Correctional Clients. The clients in the community environment require support from the community and other stakeholders. The parole and Probation Office as a system executor that required to be able to respond and anticipate various paradigm challenges that occur in the community. This community service activity is carried out to provide knowledge to the community about the role and functions of the Parole and Probation Office and to build communication between the Correctional Technical Implementation Unit and the community. The series of activities is filled with the implementation of socialization. The outcome of this activity is increasing public knowledge regarding the role and function of the Parole and Probation Office as an institution in implementing community guidance.

: The Personality-Job Fit Theory suggests that the better an employee’s personality fits with an organization’s culture and demands of the job the more likely that employee will be successful at the job. Researchers have repeatedly shown how various personality traits correlate with and predict job performance ratings for police and correctional officers. Similar research, however, is sparse for probation and parole officers (PPO), despite PPOs being identified in many states as peace officers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the degree to which personality traits, as measured by the Critical Hire-Personality Assessment (CH-PA), a pre-employment integrity, honesty and personality assessment, correlated with and predicted supervisor ratings of PPO job performance. The methods used to study this relationship consisted of supervisors within three community-based corrections agencies rating the job performance of 53 PPOs for purposes of this study. Job performance ratings were then analyzed against the PPO’s scale and subscale scores on the CH-PA the PPO took as part of their application and hiring process. Results revealed that multiple CH-PA personality scales and subscales significantly correlated with top performer ratings. Calibration, discrimination, and accuracy metrics also revealed that, when using a cut score of one standard deviation from the mean, multiple CH-PA scales adequately predicted PPO job performance ratings. Results from this study can provide PPO hiring agencies with information on what personality traits are empirically associated with top performer ratings and provide practical utility for agencies using the CH-PA.

The role of Probation Officers in the criminal justice system in Indonesia has become increasingly significant following the enactment of Law No. 11/2012 concerning the Juvenile Justice System Law, particularly in terms of guidance and supervision closely correlated with the success rate in the reintegration process of former inmates. However, based on the Prison Database System, the number of PKs in Indonesia still needs to be ideal. The ideal ratio of Probation Officers to clients handled is 9,975, but as of November 2023, only 2,851 Probation Officers positions have been filled, resulting in a deficit of 7,124 officers. This research aims to understand the urgency of appointing voluntary probation officers, analyze the practices of voluntary probation officers in other countries, and project the mechanisms for criteria, appointment procedures, task implementation, and working relationships of voluntary probation officers. The method employed is a literature review involving collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing existing knowledge from various written sources to support or provide a basis for the ongoing research. This research indicates that forming voluntary Probation Officers is an alternative solution to meet staffing needs. Additionally, the establishment of the position of voluntary Probation Officer aligns with Government Regulation No. 31/1999 regarding the Development and Guidance of Inmates, which outlines the procedures and requirements for the establishment of voluntary Probation Officers. In practice, voluntary Probation Officers, also known globally as Volunteer Probation Officers (VPO), in Japan have been deemed successful due to their financial efficiency and service effectiveness. In conclusion, establishing voluntary Probation Officers is an alternative solution that the Ministry of Law and Human Rights should promptly realize. Moreover, the successful practices of voluntary probation officers in various countries, including Japan, can guide the design of policies that encompass criteria, procedures, rights, and responsibilities.

The probation system, as a functional part of criminal justice administration, deals with low-risk offenders to rehabilitate and bring them into mainstream socio-cultural and family life. The probation system provides opportunities to convicted offenders conditionally and releases them under the supervision of a probation officer. This empirical highlighted the importance and effectiveness of the probation system and its impacts on probationers. The primary data was collected from probationers who had experience imprisonment before probation order from ten districts of Punjab province. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire, and results revealed that the probationers who were ex-prisoners perceived the probation period very positively, with significant impacts on their physical, psychological, and social life. The probation system was found effective in the process of rehabilitation of offenders under criminal justice administration. Therefore, the offenders incarcerated for minor offenses may be released on probation orders instead of constructing new prisons.

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A path model examining the association between organizational justice views and job satisfaction is proposed. The path model suggests that interpersonal and informational justice are associated with higher distributive justice views. Additionally, the path model offers that procedural and distributive justice are related to higher job satisfaction. The path model was tested with data from 222 parole and probation agents from a western U.S. state, and the multivariate results supported the proposed relationships, except that procedural justice did not have a significant direct association with job satisfaction.

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In the current article, we investigate the occupational stressors parole and probation officers working in provincial correctional services in Ontario, Canada experience. We examine four specific stressors that emerged thematically from participants’ open-ended survey responses, and conceptualize these as operational factors (i.e., the duties of the job) or organisational factors (i.e., structural aspects of the organisation in which parole or probation officers work). Participants identified the operational stressor of exposure to potentially psychologically traumatic events and secondary trauma, as well as three predominant organisational stressors: paperwork and administrative tasks, insufficient human resources, and workplace relationships and tensions. Drawing from literatures on parole and probation, workplace stress, and organisational cultures and behaviours, we analyse how these stressors have detrimental impacts on the mental health and well-being of community correctional workers, which in turn compromises their ability to effectively supervise and support individuals on their caseload. Policy and well-being implications are discussed.

Despite fundamental distinctions between the ideals of juvenile and criminal justice, little research has sought to establish the extent to which juvenile probation and parole officers’ orientations differ from those of their adult counterparts. Further, of the few studies that have explored this area of study, none have examined the role that organizational context may play in predicting professional orientation. Thus, this study aims to fill the gap in the literature by utilizing a sample of probation and parole officers drawn from three different types of agencies: juvenile-only supervision, adult-only supervision, and combined supervision. The results show that the system within which officers work is associated with professional orientation. Distinctions, however, are not as large or consistent as would be expected from strict adherence to the traditional ideals of the juvenile justice system versus the criminal justice system. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Understanding penal decision-making has become a central concern of criminologists over recent decades. Although scholars acknowledge the complex, multi-faceted, and contextual nature of penal decision-making, many rely on a single level of analysis to study the process. There is a rich literature on the socio-political, organizational, and individual context of decision-making, but few studies consider the impact of multiple influences simultaneously. To address this gap, this article uses a multi-level framework to shed light on the systems, processes, and actors that shape penal decision-making in Ireland. It draws on two case studies, namely probation and parole, to demonstrate that macro-, meso-, micro-, and individual-level influences must be considered to achieve a comprehensive understanding. Our analysis shows that macro-level systems such as legal and political processes play an important role in shaping probation and parole decisions. At the meso-level, institutional policies, values, and culture come into play while practitioner agency operates at the micro-level to support, alter, or subvert macro- and meso-level developments. Finally, the characteristics and behavior of victims and offenders can shape decision-making at the individual level. The article concludes with a reflection on the implications of this analysis for criminological knowledge.

Sex offender laws were designed to decrease sexual violence. The current mixed methods study examined attitudes and opinions of parole and probation officers who have supervised individuals convicted of sexual offenses (n = 361) regarding sex offender legislation and how these policies can be most effective in preventing recidivism. About half of the officers reported that registration and notification, sexually violent predator and Halloween laws were largely effective in preventing sexual victimization. Conversely, they perceived residence restriction laws and the tier system to be largely ineffective. A consistent theme that emerged from the qualitative responses was a movement away from blanket approaches towards a case-specific approach, tailoring the laws to individuals based upon their needs and risk level.

The Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) is a self-report scale based on the Triarchic Model that has been little used in research in the criminal justice system. We sought to examine associations between pre-release TriPM components, probation officer relationships, and parolee quality of life, both measured after 2 months in the community, and reconviction 12 months after release. Using data from 234 New Zealand male high-risk prisoners, we tested four multivariate models each across three timepoints. Pre-release, we found Boldness was not predictive, but Meanness predicted poorer relationship quality after 2 months, both from probation officer and parolee perspectives, with the former in turn predicting reconviction within 12 months. Disinhibition predicted 12-month recidivism regardless of relationship quality or external life circumstances. This relationship to recidivism was partially explained in the final model which linked Disinhibition and poorer subjective wellbeing, with the latter in turn predicting recidivism.

Transgender women are at least twice as likely as cisgender people to be incarcerated in their lifetimes, and, in custody, they experience harassment, abuse, and denial of affirming healthcare. Despite several legal and policy changes intended to improve these conditions, there has been little discussion about the need for evidence-based rehabilitation with the population. This article examines the use of the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) model with transgender women in the criminal justice system and discusses how it can be beneficial for tailoring rehabilitation services to address the unique needs of the population, thereby improving opportunities for successful community reintegration.

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The use of risk assessment tools such as the level of service/risk-need-responsivity (LS/RNR) has spread in criminal justice systems across the world. Although risk assessments have been implemented in many European jurisdictions, there is still a need for empirical knowledge on the applicability of the instruments in these geographical contexts. In this study, we follow the first cohorts of Danish prisoners who were assessed with LS/RNR (N = 4075) and evaluate the predictive validity of recidivism within 24 months from prison release. The results suggest that LS/RNR is a medium-strong predictor of recidivism when evaluated with standard methods. However, we also find large differences in recidivism outcomes between subgroups (defined by age and minority background) within identical risk levels, and we discuss the implications of these findings for research and practice.

Juvenile crime in India is a pressing issue that requires tailored rehabilitation approaches. This paper explores the application of the "Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model" as a conceptual model for treating juvenile offenders within the Indian legal context. The study reviews correctional practices and highlights the need for structured offender treatment based on the 'RNR model's' core principles of 'risk,' 'need,' and 'responsivity.' Drawing on criminological theories and empirical evidence, the paper emphasizes the significance of addressing criminogenic factors to reduce recidivism. By analyzing existing literature on juvenile justice, the paper demonstrates how the RNR model, typically employed in Western contexts, can be adapted for India's socio-cultural environment to enhance the effectiveness of juvenile rehabilitation. The findings suggest that integrating RNR-informed interventions into the juvenile justice system can improve long-term rehabilitation outcomes and reduce re-offense rates among young offenders.

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Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is an umbrella term used to describe a range of significant neurodevelopmental, brain-based disorders and impairments that result from prenatal alcohol exposure. FASD is a high prevalence but underdiagnosed group of disorders affecting between 17 and 36% of individuals in criminal justice settings. Despite being a high-impact disorder associated with lifelong impairments with a significant need for services and interventions, little research has been completed on how to best support individuals with these conditions in criminal justice settings. This article proposes a renewed focus on applying and adapting the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) approach to individuals with FASD in criminal justice settings. This will assist in better determining the needs and interventions likely to effect change and reduce recidivism for this prominent criminal justice-based population. The RNR approach has been used with multiple corrections populations to determine the need and most appropriate interventions, as well as how to best allocate scarce resources. As the prevalence of FASD becomes better understood and recognized, evidence-based approaches to addressing this specific sub-population are necessary to effect change and reduce recidivism and ongoing involvement in the criminal justice system.

While there are multiple ways in which eHealth interventions such as online modules, apps and virtual reality can improve forensic psychiatry, uptake in practice is low. To overcome this problem, better integration of eHealth in treatment is necessary. In this perspective paper, we describe how the possibilities of eHealth can be connected to the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model. To account for the risk-principle, stand-alone eHealth interventions might be used to offer more intensive treatment to high-risk offenders. The need-principle can be addressed by connecting novel experience-based interventions such as VR and apps to stable and acute dynamic risk factors. Finally, using and combining personalized interventions is in line with the responsivity-principle. Based on research inside and outside of forensic psychiatry, we conclude that there are many possibilities for eHealth to improve treatment—not just based on RNR, but also on other models. However, there is a pressing need for more development, implementation and evaluation research.

This study examined the feasibility of and fidelity to risk/needs assessment, mental health screening, and risk-need-responsivity (RNR)-based case planning within juvenile probation in two states. The researcher-guided implementation effort included the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-2 (MAYSI-2), Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), and policies to prioritize criminogenic needs while using mental health services only when warranted. Data from 53 probation officers (POs) and 553 youths indicated three of five offices had high fidelity to administration and case planning policies. The interrater reliability (n = 85; intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC][A, 1] = .92 [Northern state] and .80 [Southern state]) and predictive validity (n = 455; Exp[B] = 1.83) of SAVRY risk ratings were significant. There was an overreliance on mental health services; 48% of youth received these referrals when only 20% screened as having mental health needs. Barriers to fidelity to RNR practices in some offices included assessments not being conducted before disposition, lack of service availability, and limited buy-in from a few stakeholders.

The risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model is widely used to understand criminal behavior and guide interventions to reduce recidivism. However, its implementation in China’s juvenile justice system has not been extensively explored. This research critically examines China’s adaptation of the RNR model, noting differences from the original framework. While China emphasizes rehabilitation, its juvenile justice system prioritizes stability and risk prevention. By employing participant observation, interviews, and document analysis, this study suggests that China’s selective adaptation of the RNR model supports rehabilitation rhetoric in juvenile justice while maintaining the state’s role in risk management and promoting social stability.

OBJECTIVE Juvenile courts that apply the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model should periodically reassess youths and observe reductions in risk. There is a gap in knowledge concerning the reliable implementation of the specific responsivity principle of the RNR model, which emphasizes considering youths' unique characteristics to support rehabilitation success. In the present study, we aimed to identify whether specific responsivity factors (i.e., age, gender, and race/ethnicity) and supervision experiences (i.e., time under supervision and participation in judicial programs) effect changes in risk scores. HYPOTHESES We anticipated that (a) time under supervision would be negatively associated with dynamic risk, (b) participation in judicial programs would be positively associated with dynamic risk, and (c) race/ethnicity (not age or gender) would moderate the relationship between supervision experiences and dynamic risk. METHOD The sample consisted of 360 youths who served probation in a midwestern court. We tested multilevel models to determine differential impacts of supervision experiences on dynamic risk across responsivity factors, controlling for initial risk scores and offense seriousness. RESULTS Partially confirming our hypotheses, results showed that spending longer periods on probation and being referred to judicial programs were both associated with negative changes in risk scores (i.e., risk scores increased over time). There was no effect of age or gender; however, race/ethnicity predicted dynamic risk. The average change in risk score was 1.81 units lower for historically marginalized youths (b = -1.82, SE = 0.68, p = .01), and the magnitude of the effect was significantly driven by multiracial youths. As expected, race/ethnicity moderated the relationship between time on probation and changes in risk scores. CONCLUSIONS Findings indicate that improper application of the specific responsivity principle of the RNR model may diminish desired rehabilitation outcomes. Closing this theory-to-practice gap would improve court supervision experiences for all youths. In future studies, researchers should continue investigating specific responsivity factors and the dynamic validity of risk assessment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Traditional risk assessments for sexual offending among people with intellectual disabilities (ID) have relied on clinical, deficit-focused models like the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) framework. While effective for tracking static risks, these approaches often overlook individual human rights, personal aspirations, and the social contexts driving harmful sexual behavior (HSB).​ This paper advances a Person-Centered Planning (PCP) approach, integrating the Dignity of Risk, Good Lives Model (GLM), and public safety imperatives into forensic ID services. PCP empowers individuals by shifting risk formulation from clinical typologies to collaborative functional behavior analysis. Involving the person, family, and Circle of Support, it identifies unmet needs such as sexual education deficits, social isolation, or sensory processing issues that underlie HSB.​ Methodological challenges like communication barriers and ID-specific cognitive profiles are addressed by adapting tools like ARMIDILO-S with person-centered data from support circles. Resulting risk management plans prioritize proactive strategies such as skill-building, community inclusion over purely restrictive measures.​ Implementation data reveal superior outcomes: traditional restrictive plans yield stagnant incidents (8/month), while PCP frameworks achieve a 66% behavior reduction by month eight and eliminate crisis alerts by twelve months, balancing autonomy with community safety.​ Ultimately, PCP offers a sustainable, ethical alternative, reducing recidivism by promoting quality of life without compromising rights. Quality-of-life enhancement is not a trade-off for safety but its key enabler.​

The criminological approach to relapse is based, on the one hand, on the theories that explain the risk of relapse, including the risk level assessment tools, and on the other hand, on the rehabilitation theories—the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) Model and The Good Live Model (GLM), which explain the mechanisms of reducing the risk of relapse in the assisted desistance paradigm. The objectives of this study focus on identifying the predictors of relapse in correlation with relapse inhibitors that combine a number of personal, psycho-emotional factors with psychopathological, socio-economic, and cultural accents. The method used is that of the case study from the perspective of clinical criminology, referring to forensic psychiatry through specific techniques and working procedures of some institutions in the correctional system—territorial structures of probation (TSP) in cooperation with the penitentiary system. The results of the study focus on the impact of standardized programs on the reduction in the risk of relapse after prison (RRR) and on personal and socio-familial factors involved in post-executional surveillance and post-criminal assistance. In conclusion, the current study highlights the need to corroborate the clinical or subjective assessment of relapse risk with the actual or objective assessment, which also includes the risk of violence in the framework of community monitoring from the perspective of community or social psychiatry.

Prior literature highlights the effectiveness of the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) risk principle when providing community supervision and treatment to general justice-involved individuals and special populations such as individuals convicted of a sexual offense. Individuals deemed high-risk, per risk assessment, should receive the most intensive levels of community supervision and treatment, while individuals classified as low risk should receive the lowest intensity. Research in support for the risk principle finds adherence decreased recidivism rates and increased probation compliance. The current study assesses the effects of adhering (or not) to the risk principle in supervision levels and treatment dosage on the compliance of individuals on probation for a sexual offense (N = 133). Overall, results support risk principle adherence for individuals, with increasing adherence levels associated with significantly more compliance, and non-adherence resulting in adverse outcomes. Implications for policy and practice in the supervision and treatment of individuals with a sexual offense are discussed.

Pacific Islander and Māori people are overrepresented in the Australian criminal justice system. However, little research has examined relevant risk and protective factors and whether existing risk tools are appropriate for predicting risk and informing treatment for these populations. This paper used a qualitative, thematic analytical approach to canvass the opinions of Māori and Pacific Islander justice workers regarding risk and protective factors, the perceived suitability of the Level of Service/Risk Need Responsivity (LS/RNR) and best-practice approaches to engaging in a risk assessment interview with Pacific Islander and Māori people. Findings suggest that while many of the LS/RNR risk factors are likely to be relevant, there may be several culturally specific risk and protective factors that are not included in the LS/RNR. Consequently, the LS/RNR may not comprehensively assess the risks and needs of Pacific Islander and Māori people and may present some limitations in its capacity to inform treatment and management. Recommendations for practitioners and organizations and avenues for future research are discussed.

Abstract Risk assessment instruments are used to estimate risk of recidivism and aid in decision-making and treatment planning. However, many of these instruments, including the Level of Service/Risk, Need, Responsivity (LS/RNR), are validated on predominantly Western populations, and research has questioned whether the factors included in the LS/RNR adequately capture the experiences and needs of non-Western communities, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. The current study aimed to canvas the opinions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community justice workers as to the suitability of the LS/RNR for use with this population. A general qualitative methodology was adopted to gain in-depth information through the facilitation of a focus group, and data were analysed thematically. Whilst participants agreed that the LS/RNR risk factors are relevant to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander offenders, they reported that the instrument did not adequately capture relevant culturally specific considerations and made suggestions to improve the LS/RNR.

Individuals who sexually offend are commonly misunderstood as being high risk. According to the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) principles, treatment and supervision levels should be determined by actuarial risk for the best outcomes. To date, no studies have examined these principles with individuals on supervision for a sexual offense. This study applies the RNR principles to a sample of 133 men and women serving probated sentences for a sexual offense and mandated to specialized treatment. Results indicate low-risk individuals convicted of a sexual offense were more likely to be compliant with probation and treatment than moderate-risk individuals. An analysis of risk level and supervision overrides (N = 75) provides support for the prediction that low-risk individuals supervised at high levels may be more likely to have compliance problems. Results suggest similar outcomes when violating the risk principle for individuals who have sexually offended to the findings among general justice-involved people.

The standard psychological interventions have a responsivity gap that is currently impeding the clinical management of offenders with intellectual disabilities (ID) in the criminal justice system. The given study is a comparative analysis of mainstream Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and specialist programmes, discussing which architectural framework can best be used to promote the reduction of recidivism and behavioral stability. Using one of the synthesis key forensic sources, the research assesses the effectiveness of these pathways in terms of the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model. It is found that there is a definite Responsivity Threshold with standard mainstream services; these programmes provide more extensive social inclusivity, but often they use unadopted cognitive protocols that exceed the processing limits of offenders with ID, which results in increased attrition and restricted skill generalization. Conversely, specialist programmes, especially those based on modified Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) and special therapeutic communities, have much greater levels of engagement, and also a stronger decrease in outwardly directed aggression. The findings imply that universalized forensic models basically deprive the vulnerable groups of fair access to rehabilitation. The article finds that a hybrid model comprising the specialist and mainstream is the most effective. Key modifications in the clinical adaptations that are incorporated into generalist settings under this approach include simpler visual cues and altered pacing. With the cognitive weaknesses of this generation being addressed, the forensic services will be able to enhance clinical outcomes and safeguard the legal rights of the offenders with ID. Longitudinal recidivism data should be given priority in future research to further confirm these special adaptations as the gold standard in forensic disability management.

The intersection of mental health, substance use, and the criminal justice system presents significant challenges for probation and parole officers (PPOs), particularly when supervising justice-impacted persons (JIPs) with complex needs. Grounded in the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model (Andrews et al., 1990), this research explores the relationship between core correctional strategies (e.g., teaching clients to reframe thinking styles) and client outcomes while on probation (e.g., less substance use, employment stability) and whether gender and Indigeneity moderate these effects. The study also explores if the presence of acute mental health crises and substance misuse influences the relationship between probation and parole officers’ use of Core Correctional Practice (CCP) strategies and client outcomes. The study analyzes 193 probation case notes following the introduction of the Ontario Solicitor General’s Made-in-Ontario Core Correctional Practices (CCP) Model of Community Supervision. A subset of six items from the Client Change Scale (CCS, Serin & Lloyd, 2018) is used to assess behavioural change across key life domains (e.g., employment, substance use, program engagement). Findings will inform evidence-based training enhancements and policy reforms to improve probation outcomes for diverse populations. The opinions and views expressed in this report reflect those of the author and not the Ontario Ministry of the Solicitor General. This project was done with the support of the Ontario Ministry of the Solicitor General.

No abstract available

There is a current call to action among researchers and others emphasizing the need for continued evolution of the concept of “success” in corrections (e.g., Returning Citizens, 2020; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2022). While there have been positive developments in corrections over the years, the predominant risk-need-responsivity model (RNR; Andrews & Bonta, 2006; Andrews et al., 1990; Blanchette & Brown, 2006; Ward et al., 2007) for correctional assessment and rehabilitation in the United States’ prison system has proved insufficient. Key barriers to progress have included over-reliance upon a problematic definition and measure of success (i.e., recidivism), over-confidence in a reductionist and risk-focused model, and ignorance of the importance of the form and quality of prison culture upon prison outcomes. Amid the recommendations for innovation and alternatives to overcome identified weaknesses in the status quo approach, we posit a new, values-based, culture-focused framework for success in corrections. The Good Citizenship Model (GCM), in its most recent iteration, emerged out of over 45 years of collaborative outreach and fieldwork activity by researchers, returned citizens, specialists, and volunteers serving incarcerated people, returned citizens, and their families. The GCM targets the development of positive values and prosocial character development rather than risk-related deficits; emphasizes human flourishing over non-recidivism; and construes prison culture as a conduit through which prosocial values and character attributes are attained, reinforced, and sustained.

Abstract The construct of psychopathy has received considerable attention from clinicians, researchers, and legal practitioners because of its demonstrated association with a range of outcomes of interest to the criminal justice system. The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) is generally regarded as the premier assessment tool for measuring psychopathy in correctional and legal contexts, and the PCL-R is being used with increased frequency to address a variety of legal questions. This article provides a comprehensive examination and review of the PCL-R’s use in legal contexts. We begin by reviewing various uses (appropriate and inappropriate) of the PCL-R in legal contexts, using the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model as the conceptual framework. After reviewing available data regarding the use of the PCL-R in legal contexts, we review and synthesize psychometric research with psycholegal relevance, with a focus on the PCL-R’s construct validity, predictive validity, and interrater reliability. We then discuss the scientific acceptability and clinical utility of the PCL-R’s structural, predictive, and measurement properties for credibility in court, followed by sample cross-examination questions. We conclude with a review of admissibility issues relating to the use of the PCL-R in various legal proceedings.

A criminal record limits employment opportunities of those released from prison. Entrepreneurship, or starting one's own business venture, has been suggested as a way to overcome the employment barriers of a criminal record, given that many justice-involved persons have entrepreneurship experiences, often through illegal ventures. Sparse research has investigated how legal or illegal business experience translates to legal entrepreneurship attitudes. Using social cognitive career theory-career theory (SCCT), and concepts from the Risk Need Responsivity (RNR) model, the role of illegal and legal business exposure were investigated. Findings indicated that both legal and illegal business exposure had a positive influence on entrepreneurship goals through entrepreneurship self-efficacy and entrepreneurship outcome expectations. Legal experiences had a stronger influence. Criminal thinking, a significant risk factor for return to criminal behavior, was investigated in its role in entrepreneurship attitudes. Findings indicated that criminal thinking had an indirect effect on entrepreneurship goals through entrepreneurship self-efficacy.

Recidivism in property crimes (theft, robbery, and receiving stolen goods) linked to problematic drug use remains a recurring challenge for public safety and correctional governance. It often manifests as a short cycle of arrest–release–reoffending, with repeated victimization, increased institutional costs, and limited preventive impact when the State response relies primarily on episodic incapacitation. This theoretical-analytical article, grounded in a narrative review and document analysis, frames “Law and Order” as the State’s capacity to deliver protection through legality, proportionality, and procedural legitimacy. Four analytical pillars are integrated: (i) the drugs–crime nexus through Goldstein’s tripartite model, emphasizing economically compulsive dynamics; (ii) routine activity theory as an opportunity-structure explanation; (iii) the Risk–Need–Responsivity (RNR) correctional paradigm as a proportional targeting framework; and (iv) evidence on therapeutic jurisprudence and drug courts. The core argument is that purely punitive strategies often address symptoms without reshaping underlying mechanisms, whereas integrated approaches—combining accountability, risk triage, graduated supervision, and structured access to treatment—are more likely to reduce property-crime recidivism and strengthen operational predictability. 

Purpose: The aim was to test whether dynamic criminogenic risk factors change after participation in a new cognitive-behavioral treatment program adhering to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model, within a group of adult men convicted of a sexual offense in Sweden. Methods: Three psychometric tests from approximately 26 participants were completed. Therapists rated 46 participants using the Therapist Rating Scale-2 (TRS-2). Results: Participants reported a significant decrease in hypersexuality, small to medium effect size, a non-significant, increased, internal locus of control, but no change regarding attachment styles, posttreatment. Therapists rated significant decrease in all treatment needs posttreatment, medium to large effect size. Conclusions: The significant reduction of several criminogenic risk factors posttreatment indicates the treatment program may reduce problems related to increased risk of recidivism, especially hypersexuality. Moreover, treatment did not appear to have negative effects, motivating further implementation. However, to evaluate the effectiveness, more research is necessary.

With a sample of 125 adults under community supervision (71.20% male, 76.00% White, mean age = 33.17 years), this study evaluated need-to-service matching using an evaluation framework from implementation science. Need-to-service matching is a case management strategy intended to align service referrals in case plans with justice-involved persons' criminogenic needs. The results indicated that need-to-service matching reached a high percentage of its target population at 81.70%. Within criminogenic need areas, good match frequencies ranged from 80.00% in family/marital problems to 98.29% in alcohol/drug problems. Clinical staff also met the adherence benchmark applied by the current study, which required a 75.00% match between individuals' criminogenic needs and the services they received. Justice-involved persons had, on average, 90.46% of their criminogenic needs matched with at least one service referral. Over-prescription of services (i.e., recommendation of services that were not needed) was high, with frequencies in need areas ranging from 60.98% in education/employment to 82.21% in antisocial patterns. Methods from implementation science are useful for structuring evaluations of need-to-service matching, understanding implementation success and failure, and generating recommendations for improving implementation practice. The field would benefit greatly from benchmarks for need-to-service matching evaluation elements.

The current investigation was a prospective field validity study examining the discrimination and calibration properties of a general risk-need tool (Level of Service Inventory–Saskatchewan Youth Edition [LSI-Sk]) in a diverse sample of 284 court adjudicated youths, rated by their youth workers on the measure and followed up an average of 9.3 years. The overall risk level and need total demonstrated moderate predictive accuracy for general, violent, and nonviolent recidivism in the aggregate sample, although area under the curve (AUC) magnitudes fluctuated among gender and Indigenous ethnocultural subgroups. Variability in AUC values for the measure’s eight criminogenic need domains further reflected greater salience of certain needs among subgroups. Finally, clinician rated level of gang involvement incrementally predicted recidivism to varying degrees after controlling for overall risk and need. Implications for responsible use of risk assessment tools as part of individualized and gender/ethnoculturally responsive risk assessment practices with youth are discussed.

The present study examined the discrimination and calibration properties of Violence Risk Scale (VRS; Wong & Gordon, 1999-2023) risk and change scores in a predominantly adult male, combined sample of Indigenous (n = 439) and non-Indigenous, White majority (n = 597) persons with conviction histories for violent offenses; approximately, two thirds of whom completed risk-need-responsivity based violence reduction treatment services. Indigenous men tended to score higher on VRS static, dynamic, and total scores and to be classified as higher risk; however, there were no differences between the groups in treatment change. In the aggregate sample, VRS total scores demonstrated broadly medium to large effects in the prediction of violent and general recidivism (median AUCs = .72 [Indigenous] and .71 [non-Indigenous]) across ethnocultural groups. Conversely, VRS change scores (controlling for pretreatment score) were significantly associated with decreased violent and general recidivism for Indigenous persons (median AUC = .62) but considerably less so, with small or lower effects, for non-Indigenous persons (median AUC = .48). These results were upheld when effect sizes were aggregated across the samples through meta-analysis. Calibration analyses demonstrated that integrating risk and change information via logistic regression modeling decreased disparities between ethnoracial groups in rates of recidivism associated with VRS scores. Implications for violence risk assessment, treatment, and management using the VRS with Indigenous persons who have a history of criminal violence are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

According to official statistical data, each year a large number of the perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) is under the supervision of Lithuanian probation service (LPS). This article analyses evidence-based measures applied for the management of the risk of repeated IPV, as well as Lithuanian and foreign practice of organising correctional work with the perpetrators of IPV. Analysis of recent practice shows that, compared to foreign countries, correctional work with this group of offenders in Lithuania often does not correspond to the principles of the Risk-Need-Responsivity model and does not address the heterogeneity of this specific group. Taking into account the good practice of foreign countries and the Lithuanian context, several suggestions are made to improve correctional work with this specific group: revising individual assessment procedures, preparing differentiated protocols for service provision, and adapting the means available at LPS for correctional work with IPV perpetrators.

ABSTRACT The Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) instrument is a popular risk-need-responsivity tool for justice-involved youth. This study conducted a multi-group (based on sex) latent class analysis model of the SAVRY items to explore heterogeneity in risk/needs among youths involved in the juvenile court in Mississippi between 2017 and 2021. Results indicated a three-class solution best with the data, with Very Low, Low, and Bimodal classes. Generally, these groups were similar across sex, though the Bimodal subgroup was proportionally larger for females than males. Subsequent analyses indicated the Bimodal group was significantly younger and more involved in future one-year recidivism. These findings suggest subgroups of risk exist and should be examined further to assess future recidivism and other risks.

Despite calls for strength-focused approaches in juvenile justice, there is little research on the role of strengths in probation case management. This is one of the first studies to examine whether strengths function as specific responsivity factors as proposed by the risk–need–responsivity model, through mediating and moderating effects, and findings lend preliminary support to this conceptualization. In a sample of 261 justice-involved youth, the relationship between strengths and recidivism was found to be partially mediated by the service-to-needs match rate, even while controlling for risk—suggesting that strengths have an important indirect effect on recidivism through their impact on youth’s engagement in and completion of services. Strengths, however, did not moderate the relationship between service-to-needs match and reoffending, suggesting that appropriately matched services are essential irrespective of a youth’s strength profile. Research corroborating these findings and examining the feasibility of front-line use of strengths information is warranted.

Justice-involved veterans (JIVs) are a high-priority subgroup within the U.S. judicial system. In recent years, empirical research into the characteristics, needs, and outcomes of this veteran subgroup has developed rapidly. To allow research to better inform efforts to support JIVs, a systematic review was completed to organize existing literature on criminogenic risk within this population through the lens of the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model. Of the eight risk factors theorized by the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model, history of antisocial behavior and substance use had the most robust evidence as criminogenic risk factors for veteran justice involvement. Modest evidence was identified for antisocial personality, educational and occupational difficulties, and disruptions to family and marital relationships as risk factors. However, only limited evidence was identified for antisocial thinking, affiliation with antisocial peers, and lack of prosocial activities as risk factors due to these factors being relatively underassessed in research. Such patterns provide insight into potential interventions and supports for JIVs while also highlighting areas for continued research.

Historically evidence-based programmes in corrections have been developed to address the needs of males, who comprise the majority of the inmate population. However, many studies have identified significant differences between women and male offenders and their implications in criminal offending. Today there is general consensus that the criminogenic factors for justice involved women are distinct from those of men. Consequently, this has led to the development of gender specific programmes for women. Western correctional jurisdictions have designed and implemented a number of these gender specific programmes that recognise women's unique pathways into crime. Unfortunately, the same has not been the case in most African correctional jurisdictions. The Namibian Correctional Service (NCS) stands out as one of the few correctional jurisdictions within Africa that have introduced a gender-specific programme for women. The programme which is titled simply, "A Women's Programme", was adopted from Canada. The programme is consistent with the risk-needs- responsivity principle which underpins the Namibian Correctional Service rehabilitation framework. The programme is delivered to higher risk women, it appropriately addresses some of the unique criminogenic needs of justice involved women and it was designed in content and style of delivery to engage women. This paper highlights how a western developed evidence-based programme can be realistically implemented in the African context. In addition, the paper discusses some innovative strategies employed by the consultants in designing the programme and adopted by programme officers from the NCS in its implementation, to ensure that the programme would be relatable to the Namibian women offender population. An informal evaluation of a pilot implementation of the programme revealed that participants perceived it as promoting their self-efficacy and empowerment. Participants further stated that the programme increased insight into themselves, their past traumas, their crimes, and their relationships, leading to greater self-awareness and a sense of hope for the future.

Over the past three decades, fields such as education, medicine, social work, and criminology/criminal justice have increasingly acknowledged the value of integrating lived experience into knowledge production and professional practice. In corrections, this trend is exemplified by Convict Criminology, which emphasizes the voices and experiences of incarcerated and formerly incarcerated people in scholarly research, mentorship, and activism. Yet, integrating these perspectives faces persistent challenges, including the conflation of practitioner experience with lived experience and the demand for robust empirical evidence to justify such approaches. This paper critically examines these challenges and outlines strategies for incorporating formerly incarcerated individuals into correctional program design and policy development. It presents evidence-based frameworks for utilizing their expertise in the corrections field, offers practical guidelines for mentorship programs that bridge academic research and practitioner knowledge, and suggests methods for overcoming professionals’ resistance within correctional institutions to such integration. By doing so, this paper contributes to the growing movement toward more humane, effective, and socially just correctional policy and practice.

This paper discusses how current approaches to youth justice service delivery have largely failed to produce measurable success for both children and young people and the wider community. We draw on findings from a long-standing program of research in an Australian jurisdiction which has raised important social and political questions about the extent to which any system that relies largely on the use of punitive, risk, and deficits-based service models can only serve to criminalize childhood adversity. Local data are used to provide the evidence base from which more trauma-informed justice system practices can be identified and implemented that protect the rights of children and young people while also protecting the safety of the community.

Although ‘evidence-based approaches’ have become a hallmark for good practice in correctional services, we cannot fall into stubborn minimalism that may ignore realities on the ground. Especially for violent extremist offenders (VEOs) in conflict-inflicted areas, where scientific evidence is scarce, there is an urgent call for practice-based approaches that embrace an integration of practice-evidence, multi-stakeholder collaboration, and a focus on empowerment. This article, along with a telling example made by a NGO, discusses a potential solution to such demand in the field of deradicalization and reintegration of VEOs, and aims to fill in the hole of the universal norm.

ABSTRACT Therapeutic approaches in community corrections have become common practice toward an evidenced based approach. Core correctional practices have been transformed into manualized training programs to support probation officer use of these evidence based practices. This study sought to determine how probation officer use of a manualized training program, specifically Effective Practices in Community Supervision (EPICS), impacted offender recidivism one-year post probation completion. Findings demonstrate that EPICS is most impactful with high risk offenders while individual EPICS skills such as behavior chains and cost benefit analysis had no impact on recidivism.

This article provides a range of information about Alvis' Family and Children's Program, an innovative reentry program aimed at supporting women who have become involved in the justice system and their children. The program grew out of the need to support the rapidly increasing number of families, particularly mothers and their children, who have been impacted by incarceration. The Alvis program focuses on holistic, evidence-based approaches to address the complex and interrelated needs of both mothers and children.

CHANGES training1 is currently being implemented in France as part of an initiative with two probation departments, initiated by the Ecole Nationale d’Administration Pénitentiaire (ENAP). This is the first attempt to provide officers with an evidence-based cognitive-behavioral strategy for supervising justice-involved individuals on a face-to-face basis. The implementation of the CHANGES program will be discussed, including from the perspective of trainers and probation officers. The levers and barriers to implementing such strategies will be discussed, as well as a venues for improvements following this small-scale initiative.

Many forms of supervision strategies traditionally utilized by probation and parole officers emphasize service brokerage, case management, and compliance. Conversely, there is a growing evidence-base that demonstrates how community corrections practices can be (and have been) improved through supervision frameworks of behavior change oriented around criminogenic needs. Toward this end, recent advances in penology have applied the tenets of environmental criminology theories to community corrections practices, seeking to identify and modify each individual’s opportunity-based risks for reoffending. In this article, using data from an Australian experimental trial, we explore the utility of an “Environmental Corrections” approach to the supervision of domestic and family violence perpetrators serving probation and parole orders, an offending cohort with growing political and public pressures. Quantitative analyzes indicate that this opportunity-reduction supervision framework was effective in reducing recidivism among all offenders. Amongst probationers and parolees on community corrections orders for domestic and family violence offenses only, rates of reoffending were 15.41% lower for offenders at the treatment site compared to the control site, although this difference was not statistically significant. A thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with these clients highlights that through the Environmental Corrections trial, they learned strategies for identifying, avoiding, and resisting opportunities to reoffend. Combined, this evidence suggests that opportunity-reduction supervision tactics may hold promise for limiting recidivism amongst domestic and family violence perpetrators, although further research is required.

Circles of Support and Accountability (CoSA) is a program used in several countries that has demonstrated success in reducing recidivism and improving community reintegration with people who have committed serious sexual offences. The program is community-based and uses principles of restorative justice. This paper describes the program, reviews evidence on its success and discusses some of the implementation challenges. CoSA is cost-effective and merits wide adoption as a way of dealing with a serious issue in criminal justice.

Individuals in the criminal justice system engage in behaviors that put them at high risk for HIV. This study sought to identify characteristics of individuals who are under community corrections supervision (eg, probation) and at risk for HIV. Approximately 25,000 individuals under community corrections supervision were assessed for HIV risk, and 5059 participants were deemed high-risk or no-risk. Of those, 1519 exhibited high sexual-risk (SR) behaviors, 203 exhibited injection drug risk (IVR), 957 exhibited both types of risk (SIVR), and 2380 exhibited no risk. Sociodemographic characteristics and drug of choice were then examined using univariate and binary logistic regression. Having a history of sexual abuse, not having insurance, and selecting any drug of choice were associated with all forms of HIV risk. However, the effect sizes associated with the various drugs of choice varied significantly by group. Aside from those common risk factors, very different patterns emerged. Female gender was a risk factor for the SR group but was less likely to be associated with IVR. Younger age was associated with SR, whereas older age was associated with IVR. Black race was a risk factor for SR but had a negative association with IVR and SIVR. Living in a shelter, living with relatives/friends, and being unemployed were all risk factors for IVR but were protective factors for SR. Distinct sociodemographic and substance use characteristics were associated with sexual versus injection drug use risk for individuals under community corrections supervision who were at risk for HIV. Information from this study could help identify high-risk individuals and allow tailoring of interventions.

Returning to the community after incarceration is a particularly vulnerable time with significantly increased risk of death in the first 2 weeks. The elevated risk of death persists as long as 2 years, with cardiovascular disease (CVD) among the leading causes. African-Americans, especially African-American men, have higher rates of incarceration and community supervision (e.g., probation and parole) and an earlier onset of hypertension compared to Whites. Few studies have objectively assessed the cardiovascular health profile of criminal justice involved individuals. This study is designed to determine the cardiovascular health profile among men in community corrections and/or transitional housing, identify the prevalence of key CVD risk factors, and assess if risk varies by race/ethnicity. We recruited 100 adult men (mean age = 42.7, SD = 11.35, 60% White, 40% non-Hispanic White) with a history of incarceration in jail or prison of ≥ 6 months during their most recent incarceration and enrolled in a community corrections program. Using the American Heart Association's Life's Simple 7™ (LS-7), measures of each of the LS-7 components (body mass index, blood pressure, lipids, blood glucose, smoking, diet, and physical activity) were obtained, and LS-7 scores were generated for each measure using AHA-defined categories of poor (1 point), intermediate (2 points), and ideal (3 points) and summed to yield a total score ranging from poor for all (7 points) to ideal for all (21 points). Mann-Whitney U tests were performed to assess differences in LS-7 scores (poor, intermediate, ideal) by race/ethnicity. Additionally, an independent samples t test was conducted for race/ethnicity and LS-7 total score. Mann-Whitney U tests for LS-7 categories and race/ethnicity indicated a greater number of non-Whites had poor blood pressure (p < .01) and diet (p < .05) as compared to Whites. The independent samples t test demonstrated significantly lower LS-7 scores for non-Whites compared to Whites. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate cardiovascular health among individuals with a history of incarceration using the LS-7 metric, which included objective measures for four of the seven LS-7 metrics. Non-Whites, which included African-Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians, were more likely than Whites to fall into the poor category for both diet and blood pressure and had significantly lower total LS-7 scores than Whites, indicating they have worse scores across all seven of the LS-7 measures. Similar to what is found among non-incarcerated samples, non-Whites with incarceration histories are at elevated risk for cardiovascular events relative to their White peers.

Several studies have demonstrated the importance of agonist therapies such as methadone and buprenorphine for preventing relapse for individuals being released from jail or prison to the community. No studies have examined the impact of methadone for increasing the completion of community supervision requirements and preventing opioid relapse for individuals under community corrections supervision. This observational study compared the community corrections completion rate and opioid relapse rate of individuals receiving methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) to individuals who did not. Of the 2931 individuals enrolled under criminal justice supervision in the community, Treatment Accountability for Safer Communities (TASC), and who met criteria for opioid dependence, 329 (11%) individuals reported receiving MMT in the community. The majority of participants were White (79.8%) and male (63.5%), with a mean age of 31.33years (SD=9.18), and were under supervision for 10.4months (SD=9.1). MMT participants were less likely to fail out of supervision compared to individuals not in MMT (39.0% vs. 52.9%, p<0.001), and had a lower rate of relapse (32.9%) and longer time to relapse (average days=89.7, SD=158.9) compared to the relapse rate (55.9%) and time to relapse (average days=60.5, SD=117.9) of those not on MMT. While the observational nature of this study prevents causal inferences, these results suggest that utilization of MMT in community corrections may increase the likelihood of completing supervision requirements and delay time to opioid relapse. Providing agonist therapies to opioid dependent individuals under supervision appears to be a critical strategy in this important population.

The reentry process from prison to the community is rife with obstacles. Substance use problems, in particular, can present significant barriers to successful reentry. However, little research has examined the various roles that substance use plays during reentry from the perspective of those reentering the community. The current study explores reentry experiences of people who have been recently released from prison with a specific focus on their experiences with substance use during the reentry process. Using thematic analysis, the present study explored substance use experiences from 26 semi-structured interviews. Seven main themes emerged: recovery and sobriety, substance use programs, relapse, substance use exposure, triggers and other challenges, impact of incarceration on substance use, and reflections about substance use. Within each of these broad themes, additional subthemes emerged. Findings suggest complex histories of substance use spanning ecological contexts, including family, neighborhood, and corrections facilities as well as provide support for the pervasive and persistent nature of substance use among previously incarcerated individuals. Implications for practice and policy are discussed as well as potential future directions for research.

Preoccupation of criminologists with juvenile-onset criminal careers overshadows the fact that offenders who begin their criminal careers in adulthood comprise a substantial portion of adult offender populations. Little is known about adult-onset offenders, generally, and even less about first-time adult-onset offenders. Using a large sample of adult felons on probation supervision, this study explores differences between first and repeat offenders. With respect to risk factors at intake, timing of rearrest, and frequency and nature of supervision failures over 3 years, first-time adult-onset participants exhibited statistically significant differences in relation to both repeat adult-onset and juvenile persistent offenders, with largest differences occurring in analyses involving the latter. With respect to risk factors at intake and rearrest, events in adulthood played a more dominant role among first-time adult-onset offenders compared with other groups, where criminal lifestyle factors were in greater evidence. The article concludes with a discussion of community supervision practices to prevent the progression of the first-time adult-onset offender's criminal career, social reforms to assist this group, and avenues for relevant future research.

While there are different approaches to dealing with offenders sentenced to community corrections, the three major ones are law enforcement (surveillance), therapeutic (rehabilitation), and crime opportunity prevention. Using the study of U.S. community corrections staff by Miller as a guide, the current study examined the supervision strategy used by Chinese community corrections staff in the Hubei province of China. Chinese community corrections staff were more likely to use the therapeutic and crime opportunity prevention approaches than the law enforcement model. Predictors of each of the three offender supervision approaches differed. The results from Chinese staff were similar in many ways to that found among U.S. staff reported by Miller but differed in some areas.

The purpose of this review was to better understand the impact of community notification, known as "Megan's Law," on sex offenders' reintegration into the community. Eight quantitative studies that examined the social and psychological impact of community notification on adult sex offenders (N = 1,503) were reviewed. The pattern of results across studies showed considerable similarities despite marked variability in the populations examined, survey methods used, and response rates obtained. Sex offenders rarely reported being the target of vigilante attacks. Substantial minorities reported exclusion from residence and job loss as social consequences of being publicly identified as sex offenders in their communities. The majority of offenders reported negative psychological consequences of notification but also identified benefits of knowing that others were monitoring their behavior. More intrusive notification strategies were associated with higher rates of socially destabilizing consequences. Results are discussed in terms of their policy and research implications.

This study estimated the associations between three categories of recent community criminal justice (CJ) involvement (arrest, parole, and probation) and suicide attempts, while accounting for how the categories overlap. Participants included adults aged ≥ 18 who completed the 2008-2014 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health. The outcome was self-reported suicide attempt(s) in the past 12 months (in the community or while incarcerated). Community CJ involvement included parole, probation, and/or arrest(s) during the past 12 months. Controls with no recent CJ involvement were matched to those with any recent involvement on demographics and education. We calculated the 12-month prevalence of suicide attempts for those reporting recent parole, probation, and arrest, including their overlaps. Logistic regression models estimated the associations between each category of recent CJ involvement and suicide attempts, controlling for their overlapping and covariates. There were 15,462 participants with recent community CJ involvement and 248,520 matched controls. The 12-month prevalence of suicide attempts was 3.2% for those with recent parole, 2.7% for probation, and 3.3% for arrest, which were all greater than the matched controls (1.0%, p < 0.001 for each). After controlling for overlapping and covariates, arrest was associated with suicide attempts (RR = 1.80, 99% CI 1.47-2.19), but neither parole (RR = 1.00, 99% CI 0.64-1.56) nor probation (RR = 0.81, 99% CI 0.61-1.08) were. Adults with recent arrest had higher risk of suicide attempts than those with parole, probation, or matched controls with no CJ involvement. Recent arrest may signify elevated risk and warrant increased screening and intervention.

As states work to develop better drug policy that promotes public health and safety while reducing incarceration, there is a need for behavioral health research on community-based sanctions like probation and parole. This paper uses a national U.S. health data set to contribute to the knowledge base on substance use and criminal justice supervision. Using the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) from 2015 to 2021, we examine sociodemographic, behavioral, and mental health correlates of alcohol and drug treatment for those on probation and parole. Among those on probation and parole, 15 % received past-year alcohol treatment and 16 % received drug treatment while only 8-11 % met criteria for a past-year substance use disorder. Being African American was associated with half the likelihood of receiving drug treatment compared to being White for those on probation and parole as well as for those not. Otherwise, all correlates had either weaker relationships or no relationship at all to treatment receipt for those on probation and parole. This population tends to be male, low-income, disproportionately people of color, and have complex service needs with poor health outcomes. Further research and theory development are needed to understand the mismatch between substance use disorder and treatment receipt for this population and to address racial disparities in treatment.

The many court-involved women who have experienced trauma in their lifetimes are particularly vulnerable to the negative outcomes of trauma. The purpose of this qualitative inquiry is to understand how women who have repeatedly broken the law incorporate traumatic experiences into their identities in such a way that they increase their agency, communion, or spirituality. The research also documents the types of traumatic experiences the women included in their life stories. Informed by narrative identity theory and the related theory of posttraumatic growth, the life stories of 118 women on probation and parole were examined for themes indicative of identity transformation through redemption or indicative of contamination and stagnation. The narrative accounts considered in this study involved sexual, physical, and psychological abuse; neglect; sudden or unexpected loss; violence exposure; and severe illness or injury. Nearly all women reported having at least one traumatic experience in their lifetime, and the majority incorporated the experiences into their identities. Posttraumatic growth most often included gains in communion (i.e., helping others and caring for others) and gains in individual agency (i.e., empowerment). Thirty women also described having generative concerns or taking generative actions to improve the well-being of others as an outcome of their traumatic experience(s). For women with children, becoming better mothers and protecting their children from victimization were the overarching themes of their redemption, communion, and generative narratives. The findings highlight the importance of community responses to traumatized girls and of counseling and therapy for justice-involved women. Several specific suggestions for supporting the development of trauma and survivor narratives as a therapeutic tool are provided as a means for clients to develop interpersonal connections and empowerment.

Actuarial assessment has become an integral component of offender management, helping to structure the decision-making of correctional staff about offenders' case plans. Despite research validating instruments and documenting best practices in offender assessment, fewer studies explore how practitioners use these diagnostic and case management tools. Using survey data from a sample of probation and parole staff, the current study examines the influence of professional characteristics, job burnout and stress, and supervision strategy preferences on noncompliance with assessment data entry and deviations from the tools' risk and needs recommendations. Results indicate various forms of noncompliance with case management tools are fairly common. Staff with greater tenure and heightened depersonalization and emotional exhaustion exhibit greater odds of assessment noncompliance. Case managers who adopt surveillance and rehabilitation supervisory tactics are less likely to deviate from the tools' processes and results, while staff who prefer opportunity-reduction strategies have increased odds of assessment noncompliance.

Although the public health field has increasingly studied the collateral consequences of incarceration, we know little about the health consequences of other forms of criminal legal contact, including probation and parole. Understanding spatial and racial-ethnic variation in probation/parole across US states provides new insights into how community supervision impacts population health disparities. However, state-level probation/parole prevalence has not been adequately described. Using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census for the years 2001 to 2018, we provide the first state-level estimates of probation and parole populations by race over time in the United States. We find large variation in disparities across states and time that is masked by national-level estimates. The US probation population decreased, and its racial composition remained steady between 2001 and 2018. However, in all but 5 states, the Black-White gap in probation rates declined. The Black-White gap in parole rates declined in all but 7 states. The extent to which these race-specific changes in probation or parole over time reflect adjudication processes favoring White people, and/or affect population health, warrant further investigation. This article is part of a Special Collection on Methods in Social Epidemiology.

Using subsamples of 130 and 96 women on probation and parole, this research explores the direct effect of the supervising agent's communication patterns on client job-seeking self-efficacy. It also tests for the mediating effect through client psychological reactance, which is a feeling that one's freedoms are threatened. Agent and client reports of a conformity pattern of communication were associated with lower levels of job-seeking self-efficacy. Client reactance mediated this relationship. Agent and client reports of a conversational pattern of communication were associated with increased job-seeking self-efficacy. The results suggest that conformity-oriented communication should be avoided because of its potential to increase reactance and to promote low job-seeking self-efficacy. In contrast, conversational communication appears to have more positive effects on job-seeking self-efficacy. Findings highlight communication as a pathway through which agents can improve behavioral outcomes for women offenders searching for work.

Incarceration is a pervasive issue in the United States that is enormously costly to families, communities, and society at large. The path from prison back to prison may depend on the relationship a person has with their probation or parole officer (PPO). If the relationship lacks appropriate care and trust, violations and recidivism (return to jail or prison) may be more likely to occur. Here, we test whether an "empathic supervision" intervention with PPOs-that aims to reduce collective blame against and promote empathy for the perspectives of adults on probation or parole (APPs)-can reduce rates of violations and recidivism. The intervention highlights the unreasonable expectation that all APPs will reoffend (collective blame) and the benefits of empathy-valuing APPs' perspectives. Using both within-subject (monthly official records for 10 mo) and between-subject (treatment versus control) comparisons in a longitudinal study with PPOs in a large US city (

The aim of this long-term study was to record substance-specific prevalences of illegal use of narcotics despite court-imposed abstinence requirements. Urine assays were obtained by a public health department on the basis of administrative assistance for the probation department of a district court. The individual and valid allocation of these urine samples was ensured using a proven marker system. After postal dispatch, laboratory chemical analyses for narcotics residues were carried out in an external laboratory via enzyme immunoassay and validation by mass spectrography in the case of positive narcotics results. On the basis of all available routine data, a pooled data set covering a total of fourteen consecutive calendar years (2006-2019) was generated digitally and evaluated anonymously. From a total of 380 subjects (female: 13% versus male: 87%; average age: 30.4 years), 13,500 individual narcotic substance analyses from 2,941 urine samples were available. In 2.7% of all individual analyses, at least one of eight potential narcotic substances was detected, whereby the highest overall prevalences in the sense of a relapse were found for cannabis with 3.7% and for opiates with 2.4%. In contrast, there were almost no residues for barbiturates and LSD and no positive evidence for buprenorphine and PCP. As expected, most relapses in all narcotics groups were found in the age groups from 18 to 35 years. Strikingly, more women than men violated the court abstinence order with amphetamines, while relapses with the other seven narcotics groups occurred predominantly among men. In the course of the entire observation period, the most marked fluctuations in relapse rates were found for cannabis, opiates and cocaine. The use of narcotic substances during probation and parole supervision does not appear to be a rare occurrence and has received little professional attention. Increased attention to this group-specific recidivism and more studies on this topic should help reduce this deficit. Zielsetzung dieser Langzeituntersuchung war die Erfassung substanzspezifischer Prävalenzen widerrechtlichen Konsums von Betäubungsmittel (BTM) trotz gerichtlicher Abstinenzauflagen. Auf der Grundlage der Amtshilfe für die Bewährungshilfe eines Landgerichtes wurden durch ein Gesundheitsamt Urinasservate gewonnen. Die individuelle und valide Zuordnung dieser Urinproben wurde durch Anwendung eines bewährten Marker-Systems gewährleistet. Nach postalischem Versand erfolgten in einem externen Labor die laborchemischen Analysen auf BTM-Rückstände mittels Enzymimmunoassay und Validierung durch Massenspektrographie im Falle positiver BTM-Nachweise. Auf der Basis aller vorliegenden Routinedaten konnte ein gepoolter Datensatz über insgesamt vierzehn konsekutiver Kalenderjahre (2006–2019) digital generiert und anonymisiert ausgewertet werden. Von insgesamt 380 Betroffenen (weiblich: 13% versus männlich: 87%; Durchschnittsalter: 30,4 Jahre) lagen 13.500 BTM-Einzelanalysen aus 2.941 Urinproben vor. Dabei waren in 2,7% aller Einzelanalysen mindestens eines von acht potentiellen BTMs nachzuweisen, wobei sich für Cannabis mit 3,7% und für Opiate mit 2,4% die weitaus höchsten Gesamtprävalenzen im Sinne eines Rückfalles feststellen ließen. Hingegen waren fast keine Rückstände für Barbiturate und LSD beziehungsweise keinerlei positive Nachweise für Buprenorphine und PCP zu führen. Erwartungsgemäß waren die meisten Rückfälle in allen BTM-Gruppen in den Altersgruppen von 18 bis 35 Jahren vorzufinden. Auffallenderweise verstießen mehr Frauen als Männer mit Amphetaminen gegen die gerichtliche Abstinenzauflage, während sich die Rückfälle mit den anderen sieben BTM-Gruppen vorwiegend bei Männern ereigneten. Im Verlauf des gesamten Beobachtungszeitraumes waren für Cannabis, Opiaten und Cocain die deutlichsten Schwankungen bei den Rückfallhäufigkeiten vorzufinden. BTM-Konsum während der Bewährungs- und Führungsaufsicht scheint eher kein seltenes Ereignis zu sein und fand bisher wenig fachliche Beachtung. Durch ein vermehrtes Augenmerk auf dieses gruppenspezifische Rückfallgeschehen und durch mehr themenbezogene Studien sollte dieses Defizit gemindert werden.

The percentage of repeat offenders is increasing among juvenile offenders in Korea. The assessment and treatment of the mental health of young offenders may play an important role in reducing the recidivism rate of adolescents. This study examined the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among adolescents on probation or parole and the risk of recidivism associated with specific psychiatric disorders. We studied 120 adolescents on probation. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview and Conners' Rating Scale-Revised were used to diagnose psychiatric disorders. Almost half of the juvenile offenders had psychiatric disorders, including alcohol use disorder (19.17%), bipolar disorder (18.33%), antisocial personality disorder (11.67%), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (10.83%). Alcohol use disorder was significantly associated with repeated offenses, but psychiatric disorders, excluding alcohol use disorder, were not significantly associated with repeated offenses. These results suggested that the development of education and treatment programs for psychiatric disorders, including alcohol use disorder, among juvenile offenders on probation or parole may help to prevent repeated criminal behaviour.

Female offenders released from prison often face challenges within the community such as lack of employment, inconsistent attendance in substance use treatment, and complying with parole and probation conditions, which typically decreases their self-efficacy and motivation to refrain from reoffending. Despite this, much is still unknown of psychological factors that could impact female offenders' attitudes toward self-efficacy, such as mental illness symptoms, Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), and personality differences. Thus, this cross-sectional study explored whether mental illness symptoms, ACEs, and personality differences were associated with attitudes toward self-efficacy (

In the fall of 2005, the state of Missouri launched a three-prong assessment of the relationship between probation and parole and three of their stakeholders: police, courts, and treatment providers. The Division of Probation and Parole was interested in identifying these perceptions as they implement the Missouri Reentry Process (MRP). The MRP promotes the formation of interdependent working relationships between stakeholders and probation and parole. Before these relationships can be fostered or improved, an assessment of the current relationship was necessary. This article focuses on the 2nd year's project that involved a web-based, statewide survey of treatment providers. The purpose of the study was to conduct a utilization-focused evaluation to ascertain treatment providers' perceptions of probation and parole's service delivery. The descriptive statistics examined and described broad perceptions of the relationship. Bivariate analysis was conducted to determine whether a relationship existed between different dimensions such as education level, facility staff size, and other variables such as perceived support for treatment and whether probation and parole officers participate in information-sharing meetings. An overall favorable perception of probation and parole was apparent from the survey results. Statistically significant results for several dimensions of the relationship between probation and parole officers and treatment providers were found. These statistically significant results provided insight into the effectiveness of probation and parole's service delivery. The article concludes with a presentation of policy implications.

As state legislatures work to reduce prison populations and increase the use of community-based alternatives, limited knowledge exists about the service needs of those under criminal justice supervision in the community. Preliminary research indicates unusually high rates of disease, disability, and death. Health risks for this population include opioid misuse, a form of substance misuse that has reached epidemic proportions in the U.S. Evidence indicates this may be one of multiple epidemics this population experiences, complicating intervention. Our study included 5154 individuals on probation or parole. Using 2015-2020 data from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), we conducted a series of logistic regressions examining associations between opioid misuse and a range of health risks, controlling for sociodemographic variables and survey year. Approximately 17% of those on probation or parole indicated past-year opioid misuse, a rate 4 times higher than in the general population. Compared to those on probation and parole who did not misuse opioids, it was associated with higher odds of other health risk behaviors and mental health problems. For example, the odds of marijuana and cocaine use were 4-6 times higher and the odds of substance use disorder were 10 times higher. Similarly, the odds of experiencing major depressive episodes and serious psychological distress were 2-3 times higher. Our findings reveal a markedly high risk for opioid misuse within this population along with associated risks for behavioral and mental health problems. The complex treatment needs of this population require greater policy attention and further research.

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This study assessed the extent to which clinical characteristics, psychiatric status, and use of mental health services explain incarceration for technical violations of probation or parole rather than incarceration for new offenses. A total of 250 clients of an urban psychiatric probation and parole service were screened for psychiatric diagnoses and monitored with a 12-month data collection protocol. Longitudinal analysis was used to explain incarceration on new charges, incarceration on technical violations of probation and parole, or absence of incarceration. Eighty-five individuals (34 percent) were incarcerated during the follow-up period. Forty-four (18 percent) were incarcerated for a new offense, and 41 (16 percent) were incarcerated for a technical violation. Participation in mental health treatment was associated with a lower risk of incarceration for a technical violation. Intensive monitoring by mental health providers, such as through case management and medication management, were significant risk factors for incarceration for a technical violation. Clients who were incarcerated for a technical violation were more than six times as likely to have received intensive case management services. The role of mental health services in reducing the risk of incarceration remains mixed. Providing services that emphasize monitoring tends to increase the risk of incarceration for technical violations of criminal justice sanctions. However, any participation in treatment and motivation to participate in treatment appears to reduce the risk of incarceration.

The failure of incarceration as a response to drug offenses has resulted in new policies supporting community-based alternatives. One challenge has been finding appropriate housing for persons on probation and parole. Sober living houses (SLHs) are alcohol- and drug-free living environments that are increasingly being used as housing options for these individuals. The current study examined 6- and 12-month outcomes for 330 persons on probation or parole who entered 49 SLHs. Residents in 22 houses (n = 149 individuals) were randomly assigned to receive a "Motivational Interviewing Case Management" (MICM) intervention and residents in the other 27 houses (n = 181 individuals) received SLH residency as usual. At 6-and 12-month follow-up, both study conditions showed significant improvement relative to baseline on substance abuse, criminal justice, HIV risk, and employment outcomes. For persons who attended at least one MICM session, there were better criminal justice outcomes compared to the SLH as usual group.

Fidelity assessment tools can assess whether a program embraces a core set of principles and performs well. A quality fidelity tool with valid scales can be a feedback loop to identify areas that need further work to improve the program. Using data collected from 1816 correctional and reentry programs in the United States in the construction sample and 761 programs in the confirmation sample, this study examined the internal consistency of the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) Program Tool, an online resource to capture information about structural features of a program. The study reports on reliability statistics and factor analyses to highlight individual subscales. Six scales emerged and had acceptable to excellent levels of internal consistency. These scales are staffing, reward-and-sanction, clinical standards for programs, coaching, program duration, and risk-need assessment. This article discusses fidelity scales from the RNR Program Tool and provides guidance on the importance of tool development processes to ensure accurate, valid, and reliable scales. The purpose of the RNR Program Tool is to create a modern, online tool integrating both the empirical (research) literature on effective practices and clinical standards on quality programming. This process minimizes the need for consultants by giving program administrators the ability to gather information on their programs, score them, and receive instant and targeted feedback with recommendations for improvement to assess their programs against empirical standards in the field. Furthermore, it provides a standardized tool that administrators can use to examine what type of individuals fare better in their programs. The provided targeted feedback can give the programs the ability to seek technical assistance or guidance in specific areas that can strategically strengthen their program.

Research indicates moderate-to-limited integration of the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) principles in probation case planning. Efforts to improve implementation are important targets for research, policy, and practice. This study examined the ability of two juvenile probation departments to implement RNR principles with fidelity following a comprehensive implementation protocol that included RNR-related policies, creation of a service matrix for criminogenic need-to-service matching, and extensive staff training. The researchers anticipated fidelity to the risk and need principles would be stronger than previous studies. This implementation study involved secondary data analysis of services received over 10 months for 254 adolescent offenders (76.80% male, 72.40% White, M age = 16.13 years) from two probation departments following adoption of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory. Probation departments evidenced strong fidelity to the risk principle, such that higher risk youth were assigned more services with higher intensity. Fidelity to the need principle was moderate at best (an average 24.61% to 29.38% need-to-service match) and varied by criminogenic need, overall risk level, and the operational definition of criminogenic need. Comprehensive implementation practices are associated with strong fidelity to the risk principle, but it may take longer for probation departments to achieve strong fidelity to the need principle. Researchers should identify more feasible methods for implementing the need principle and strive for a consensus on methods for measuring need-to-service match that are also consistent with probation policies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Target populations have always been a thorny issue for correctional programs, primarily in response to the question "what works for whom?" In this experiment of seamless treatment for probationers in two sites, offenders were randomly assigned to the seamless model (drug treatment incorporated into probation supervision) or traditional referral model to services in the community. The experiment blocked on risk level, using a version of the Wisconsin Risk Tool, to measure the differential effects on rearrest and substance abuse. The seamless system model improved treatment participation with greater gains for the high-risk offenders in both sites. Yet, no main effects were observed on drug use or rearrest, although effect sizes illustrate that small effects can be observed for the high-risk offenders and the direction of the effect size demonstrates negative effects for moderate-risk offenders in one of the sites. Part of the failure to observe main effects may be due to instrumentation and measurement problems, namely that many of the substance abusers in the experiment had low severity substance abuse problems and the majority of the offenders were marijuana users which has a weaker crime-drug linkage. Study findings illustrate the importance of theoretically driven and dynamic risk and need measures. The focus on sound dynamic factors may assist with identifying the appropriate target populations for correctional interventions.

The risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model suggests several key practices for justice-involved populations under correctional supervision. Behavioral health treatment planning aligned with RNR principles for offender populations with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders (CODs) could be one method for integrating RNR into clinical care. To explore a unique approach to working with behavioral health and RNR principles, the authors implemented a mixed-methods feasibility study of the acceptability, usability, and utility of a newly developed RNR treatment planning support tool (RNR TST). The tool was implemented in a re-entry program serving adults with co-occurring mental health and opioid use disorders. Chart reviews of RNR TSTs (N = 55) and a focus group (N = 14 re-entry clinical staff) were conducted. Ninety-six percent of the RNR TSTs incorporated the use of a validated risk-need assessment and 70% of the RNR TSTs were semi-complete to complete. Focus group interviews highlighted behavioral health staff perspectives on the acceptability, usability, and utility of the RNR TST. This novel RNR TST has the potential to assist behavioral health providers in integrating RNR principles into treatment planning. Further development and testing are needed to determine its impact on client care and outcomes.

Using meta-analysis to determine the effect size of the recidivism rate of participants in community correction programs that are conducted entirely in community settings. Following the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA), 25 qualified studies contributed 35 independent effect sizes. Full participation in a program significantly reduced the recidivism rate. Participant age was a significant moderator of heterogeneity. Those aged over 18 have lower recidivism rates. Interventions that fully follow the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) design principles achieved similar results to those that did not. Recidivism rates increase more than 12 months after the program ends. The effectiveness of community correctional programs varies depending on the participant's age. The RNR principles are not golden. The above factors should be carefully considered when conducting intervention design in the future. Results should be interpreted with caution due to the literature's high heterogeneity and low quality. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11292-022-09550-w.

The risk-need-responsivity model (RNR; Bonta & Andrews, 2017) has become a leading approach for effective offender case management, but field tests of this model are still required. The present study first assessed the predictive validity of the RNR-informed Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI; Andrews, Bonta, & Wormith, 2004) with a sample of Atlantic Canadian male and female community-supervised provincial offenders (N = 136). Next, the case management plans prepared from these LS/CMI results were analyzed for adherence to the principles of risk, need, and responsivity. As expected, the LS/CMI was a strong predictor of general recidivism for both males (area under the curve = .75, 95% confidence interval [.66, .85]), and especially females (area under the curve = .94, 95% confidence interval [.84, 1.00]), over an average 3.42-year follow-up period. The LS/CMI was predictive of time to recidivism, with lower risk cases taking longer to reoffend than higher risk cases. Despite the robust predictive validity of the LS/CMI, case management plans developed by probation officers generally reflected poor adherence to the RNR principles. These findings highlight the need for better training on how to transfer risk appraisal information from valid risk tools to case plans to better meet the best-practice principles of risk, need, and responsivity for criminal behavior risk reduction. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) framework is regarded as the forefront of offender rehabilitation in guiding youth offender risk assessment and interventions. This article discusses the juvenile justice system in Singapore and the local research that has been conducted in relation to the RNR framework and the associated Youth Level of Service (YLS) measures. It describes a journey that saw the implementation of the RNR framework across the juvenile justice agencies and highlights the challenges that were faced during the implementation process on the ground. Finally, the article concludes by providing future directions for the implementation of the RNR framework in Singapore.

National efforts to improve responses to persons with mental illness involved with the criminal justice system have traditionally focused on providing mental health services under court supervision. However, a new policy emphasis has emerged that focuses on providing correctional treatment services consistent with the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model to reduce recidivism. The objective of this review was to evaluate empirical support for following the RNR model (developed with general offenders) with this group and to pose major questions that the field needs to address. A comprehensive search using PubMed and PsycINFO yielded 18 studies that addressed the applicability of the RNR model to the target population. The results of these studies were synthesized. There is strong support for using general risk assessment tools to assess this group's risk of recidivism. Preliminary evidence indicates that cognitive-behavioral programs targeting general risk factors are more effective than psychiatric treatment alone. However, there is as yet no direct support for the applicability of the three core RNR principles to treat this population. Although the new policy emphasis shows substantial promise, the field must avoid rushing to the next "evidence base" too rapidly and with too little data. There must be explicit recognition that RNR principles are being applied to a new population with unique characteristics (mental illness combined with justice system involvement), such that generalizability from general offender samples is uncertain. Moreover, public safety goals for the target population should not eclipse those related to public health. This group's unique features may affect both the process and outcomes of treatment.

The current study examined the impact of a mental health court (MHC) on mental health recovery, criminogenic needs, and recidivism in a sample of 196 community-based offenders with mental illness. Using a pre-post design, mental health recovery and criminogenic needs were assessed at the time of MHC referral and discharge. File records were reviewed to score the Level of Service/Risk-Need-Responsivity instrument (Andrews, Bonta, & Wormith, 2008) to capture criminogenic needs, and a coding guide was used to extract mental health recovery information at each time point. Only mental health recovery data were available at 12 months post-MHC involvement. Recidivism (i.e., charges) was recorded from police records over an average follow-up period of 40.67 months post-MHC discharge. Case management adherence to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model of offender case management was also examined. Small but significant improvements were found for criminogenic needs and some indicators of mental health recovery for MHC completers relative to participants who were prematurely discharged or referred but not admitted to the program. MHC completers had a similar rate of general recidivism (28.6%) to cases not admitted to MHC and managed by the traditional criminal justice system (32.6%). However, MHC case plans only moderately adhered to the RNR model. Implications of these results suggest that the RNR model may be an effective case management approach for MHCs to assist with decision-making regarding admission, supervision intensity, and intervention targets, and that interventions in MHC contexts should attend to both criminogenic and mental health needs.

Cross-cultural research into risk assessment instruments has often identified comparable levels of discrimination. However, cross-cultural fairness is rarely addressed. Therefore, this study explored the discrimination and fairness of the Level of Service/Risk, Need, Responsivity (LS/RNR) within a sample of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander males. We hypothesized that discrimination would not be significantly different for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander individuals and non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander individuals. We further hypothesized that some fairness definitions would be unsatisfied. The study included 380 males (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, n = 180) from Australia. Discrimination was assessed with the area under the curve (AUC) and cross AUC (xAUC). To determine fairness, error rate balance, calibration, predictive parity, and statistical parity were used. The discrimination of the LS/RNR was not statistically different (p = .61) between groups. The xAUC identified disparities (p < .001), with the LS/RNR being unable to discriminate between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander nonreoffenders and non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander reoffenders (xAUC = .46, 95% CI [.35, .57]). Disparities among certain fairness definitions were identified, with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander individuals scoring higher on the LS/RNR (d = 0.52) and nonreoffenders being classified as high risk more often. The findings suggest that the LS/RNR may not be a cross-culturally fair risk assessment instrument for Australian individuals, and standard discrimination indices with comparable levels do not imply that a risk assessment instrument is cross-culturally fair. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Luck in forensic psychiatry may mean a fair treatment for the affected person, safety for the society and satisfying work for the clinician. There has been great progress in forensic psychiatry. A high quality forensic treatment consists of a professional attitude, which preserves the personal integrity and identity. The principles of RNR (Risk-Need-Responsivity) are essential. There are very promising treatment approaches like the "Good lives model" or the "Community Reinforcement Approach" (CRA-Concept), which consider the personal aims and the pursuit of happiness of the patient as a starting point and resource. The most recent legislative changes will probably cause a shorter duration of stay in forensic clinics and will require a more intense and well connected aftercare. The risk of a relapse is not a matter of luck. It can be calculated and reduced. However, further research is needed to improve effectiveness of the follow-up care. Glück in der Forensik kann für Patienten eine gute Behandlung, für die Gesellschaft Sicherheit und für die Behandler eine sehr befriedigende Arbeit bedeuten. Forensische Behandlung braucht eine Grundhaltung, die auf eine würdevolle positive Identität abzielt und eine Fachlichkeit, die sich an den Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR)-Prinzipien sowie den persönlichen Zielen der Patienten orientiert. Die jüngsten Gesetzesreformen werden zu kürzeren Verweildauern im Maßregelvollzug führen und erfordern eine intensive und gut vernetzte Nachsorge. Rückfallgefahr ist keine reine Glückssache, sondern kann kalkuliert und reduziert werden.

The present quasi-experimental study examined the impact of a brief training program based on the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model on Turkish juvenile probation officers' (JPOs) punitive and rehabilitative attitudes toward justice-involved youth and recidivism risk perceptions. Fifty-nine JPOs were recruited through three probation offices in Istanbul, Turkey. Thirty-six JPOs, who received a 1-day training in the RNR model of offending behavior, were compared to JPOs in a wait-list control condition (n = 23). Participants in both conditions completed surveys at baseline and 1-week posttraining. Mixed-factorial analysis of variances revealed a significantly higher decrease in JPOs' punitive attitudes from pre- to posttest, in the training condition compared to the control group, with a medium effect size. Rehabilitative attitudes decreased in both conditions, while recidivism risk perceptions did not change from pre- to posttest in either condition. Future research could expand on these promising results using a more intensive training program and a randomized-controlled design in a larger sample of JPOs.

Recent research expanded theoretical frameworks of criminality to include biosocial perspectives. This article advances the biosocial integration into traditional criminological theories by focusing on the potential contribution of executive function (EF) to Andrews and Bonta's risk-need-responsivity (RNR) model. EF encompasses a collection of abilities critical to adaptive human functioning, many of which seem to underlie criminogenic risk and need factors. Although the assessment of EF can be elusive, research suggests that offenders with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) experience EF deficits. Theoretical analysis on neuropsychological and forensic concepts suggests that unitary and discrete EF domains underlie the "Central Eight" criminogenic factors that are related to criminal behavior and, by extension, the RNR model of forensic assessment and treatment. Research and conceptual limitations of the current neuropsychological and forensic literature are discussed along with the limits of our theoretical analysis. A call for more theoretical and applied forensic neuropsychological research is presented.

According to the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model, treatment effectiveness increases when treatment addresses all three associated core principles. While researchers have focused on the risk and need principles, responsivity remains under-investigated. The theoretical foundation of the RNR model and former research indicates low perceived self-efficacy and inadequate adult attachment styles as potential responsivity factors that can impede treatment of the underlying risk factors. This study assesses firstly whether these factors predict treatment attrition, and secondly changes in the assessed risk of sexual reoffending. Participants were

Individuals with pedophilia are considered to have an elevated risk for child sexual abuse (CSA). Nevertheless, it is assumed that pedophilic sexual impulses can be controlled from acting out. To prevent CSA an outpatient treatment facility for people with pedophilia was founded in Zurich, Switzerland in 2021. The program focuses on the prevention of CSA and improvement of quality of life, incorporating empirically validated treatment principles, such as the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model and the Good Lives Model (GLM). Within the initial 24-month 142 individuals sought help, 46 individuals (mean age 36.0 ± 12.4 years) completed the assessment phase, two-thirds suffered from psychiatric comorbidities, and 67.4% reported sexual delinquency. The high drop-out rate was predominantly due to ongoing criminal proceedings, or other mental health conditions. Overall patients at this facility generally sought treatment voluntarily, leading to good treatment adherence, with severe self-harm being more prevalent than acute danger to others. A treatment approach focused solely on pedophilia is considered insufficient; psychiatric and psychosocial factors must also be addressed.

Elevated rates of traumatic experience in the juvenile justice population are well established. Nevertheless, the role of trauma and its application to rehabilitation and recidivism in a criminal justice context remains hotly debated, particularly for female youth. The Risk-Need-Responsivity framework, the predominant model for risk assessment and case management in juvenile justice, does not consider trauma to be a risk factor for offending. This study examined- Posttraumatic Stress symptomology, maltreatment history, and childhood adversity - in relation to RNR risk factors for reoffending (criminogenic needs) and recidivism in a sample of female and male juvenile offenders. Rates of PTS symptomology, maltreatment, and childhood adversity were significantly higher in this sample compared to prevalence in the general population. Females were more likely to have experienced maltreatment. Several maltreatment and childhood adversity types were significantly related to criminogenic needs. PTS symptomology and adversity were not significant predictors of recidivism when entered alongside criminogenic needs; however, maltreatment was the strongest predictor of recidivism for both male and female youth in a model that included criminogenic needs. Gender did not moderate the relationship between maltreatment and recidivism. The importance of considering youths' maltreatment history in their rehabilitative care is discussed.

This study aims to examine current research about trauma-exposed, justice-involved (TEJI) female youth, and evaluate the current literature regarding the effectiveness of gender-specific interventions aimed at reducing their recidivism. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) methodology was utilized to examine quantitative and qualitative literature, published from 2000 through March 2020, about interventions for female justice-involved youth with trauma exposure. Analysis of selected studies utilized an integrated framework based on Andrew's Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model and Lipsey's factors of effectiveness, which reviewed studies showing the relationship between female justice-involved youth with mental health symptomologies and trauma. The findings show that effective intervention for this population targets the youth's negative internal mechanisms related to trauma-subsequent psychosocial problems. These studies suggest that trauma-sensitive modalities have the potential to mitigate the further risk of problematic external behaviors. All studies had limited sample sizes, low follow-up rates, and unknown long-term outcomes. Future research should explore dimensions of sustainability and achieving stability in relation to intervention setting. Selecting the proper venue and facilitator for quality implementation and stability of setting is critical in delivering effective therapies. Modifications in public expectations of juvenile justice policy and practice, from disciplinary to therapeutic approaches, is needed.