教育性别平等的干预：不只在学校，更在家庭厨房

性別平等是不論國內還是國際社會努力追求的目標之一,更是台灣在頒布性別平等教育法後於學校努力的方向。性別平等觀念往往是透過社會化。因此本研究以階層迴歸來分析社會化環境中的家庭、同儕社群以及學校對國中生性別平等觀念的獨特解釋力。本研究以立意抽樣的方式選取台灣北中南三地區 30 個九年級班級共 792 名學生,研究發現,性別、家庭經驗、社群互動及學校經驗都對國中生之性別平等觀念有解釋力,性別與家庭經驗對性別平等概念也存在有顯著的調節效果。相較於女生,家庭經驗更能增進其性別平等概念。最後根據本研究結果提出對家長、學校教師、有關當局及後續研究者之建議。  Gender equality has become a key goal in both national and international communities. In Taiwan, it gained additional attention following the enactment of the "Gender Equity Education Act". The socialization process significantly influences perceptions of gender equality among students, with family, peer groups, and educational institutions, which are the most accessible social resources for students, being particularly influential in this process. However, the unique contributions of these social elements warrant further investigation. The present study recruited 792 ninth-grade students from 30 classes in Taiwan and employed hierarchical regression analysis to analyze the collected survey data. The results indicate that gender, family experiences, social interactions, and school experiences each exert a unique, positive influence on perceptions of gender equality among students. In addition, gender and family experience were discovered to have a moderate effect on these perceptions of gender equality. This study further offered targeted suggestions for parents, teachers, and relevant authorities for enhancing gender equality awareness.  

《东方主义的表演困境:从到的文化误读与权力叙事》一文旨在探讨东方主义在当代文化产品中的表现，具体聚焦于经典作品《木兰》和《西贡小姐》。首先，本文将梳理东方主义理论的定义及历史演变过程，由爱德华·赛义德提出的东方主义理论框架因此成为研究基础。东方主义不仅仅是对东方世界的模糊和刻板幻想，而是通过权力关系的塑造进一步强化西方主导地位和东方他者化的复杂过程。接着，通过具体文本分析，《木兰》中的文化误读问题被揭示，尤其是其对中国文化的简化与扭曲，包括性别角色、家庭价值、荣辱观及其对东方女性的性别刻板印象等。此外，《西贡小姐》作为另一经典文艺作品，通过其剧情框架披露了西方对越战的叙述方式，展示如何通过音乐和舞台艺术再现战后越南女性的悲剧命运，并藉此反映美越关系的政治生态和权力对话。本文进一步分析这些作品在表演艺术层面所面临的挑战，文化误读对于表演者和受众的多重影响，指出多元文化理解的重要性和必要性。解决这些困境的对策主要集中于提升表演者对文化背景和历史脉络的理解，通过学术研究和跨文化交流深化对东方文化形态的认识，避免传统文化的简单化再现。通过本文的探讨，尝试为未来东方文化在全球语境中的正确解读与尊重提供一些理论和实践上的借鉴。

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随着我国易地扶贫搬迁工作的深入推进，搬迁群众“稳得住、能致富”的目标逐步实现，但其子女的教育问题，特别是家庭教育质量的提升，成为影响搬迁成效可持续性和社会融合深度的关键。本文基于对某易地搬迁安置区600 份家长问卷与600 份学生问卷的对比分析，深入剖析了搬迁家庭在教育观念、亲子沟通、教育行为、家庭氛围等方面的现状、优势与困境。研究发现，安置区家长普遍重视教育但教育能力受限，亲子关系基本和谐但家校沟通薄弱，教育方式趋向理性但存在传统惯性，家长提升意愿强烈但支持体系缺位。针对这些问题，本文构建了一个以学校为主导的“四位一体”家庭教育指导服务体系，并提出了具体的建设路径，旨在为提升易地搬迁安置区的家庭教育质量、促进搬迁学生全面健康发展提供理论参考和实践方案。

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Violence against women and children in the family continues to persist. This research aims to educate the community through the involvement of activists from the Fatayat and IPPNU organizations, focusing on gender equality education within the family setting as a preventive measure against domestic violence. A qualitative method was employed in this research, utilizing a service-learning approach that actively engaged community participation. The collected data were analyzed using resolution methods. The findings of the research indicate that: firstly, there still exists a gender bias understanding, highlighting the need for gender equality education; secondly, the concept of gender equality should be applied within the family environment through parenting and the education of children; thirdly, gender equality education for the community aligns with the goals of sustainable development in eliminating all forms of violence against both women and children.

As a solution to gender discrimination that remains a serious problem today, gender equality education is receiving increasing attention around the globe. How to teach gender equality more effectively, in this context, becomes a pressing issue. The study takes eight Chinese-language LGBT+ films released in the past five years, including Tracey (2018), Dear Ex (2018), The Two Lives of Li Ermao (2019), All in My Family (2019), Twilight’s Kiss (2019), Your Name Engraved Herein (2020), Dear Tenant (2020), Secrets of 1979 (2021), as the analysis texts, aiming to find the educational implications of the films for gender equality and thus discuss the feasibility of applying them to classroom teaching. The study finds that Chinese-language LGBT+ films generally succeed in reflecting the difficulties faced by LGBT+ groups in corresponding regions. Although they are still not free from gender stereotypes, the negative impact of such can be dissipated through methods such as class discussions. Therefore, the study argues that Chinese-language LGBT+ films are generally meaningful and educational from the perspective of gender equality and can be used as teaching tools as long as they are carefully and critically examined. In this way, they can help eliminate gender discrimination and build respect for diverse sexualities.

Abstract Despite the numerical predominance of women in higher education institutions (HEIs), significant underrepresentation in academic and leadership positions persists, highlighting ongoing gender inequalities. This study examines the role of management in addressing gender disparities and offensive behaviors within a Portuguese public HEI, using psychosocial safety climate (PSC) theory as a conceptual framework. We conducted two studies involving 405 participants—students and staff—to assess perceptions of gender equality and the impact of a management-promoted work-life balance culture (WLBC). Our findings reveal that active management engagement in gender equality is significantly correlated with reduced perceptions of gender inequality among both students and staff. However, gender differences emerged, with female participants reporting a higher perception of gender inequality. Despite notable improvements in gender perceptions, the reduction in reported offensive behaviors was not statistically significant, underscoring the complexity of addressing such behaviors through management interventions alone. Mediation analyses indicated that WLBC indirectly influences perceptions of gender inequality and offensive behaviors through its impact on work-family conflict (WFC), highlighting WFC as a significant mediator. This research underscores the importance of a proactive managerial approach in fostering an inclusive academic environment and demonstrates the nuanced role of WLBC and WFC in mediating gender equality outcomes.

                Gender equality in Islamic education is becoming increasingly significant in the context of the Industrial Revolution 5.0. This study examines how values exemplified by Indonesia’s Muslim heroines, like R.A. Kartini, Dewi Sartika, and Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, can inspire innovative approaches to promoting and supporting women’s roles in education. Through a qualitative library study, this research examines Islamic teachings alongside the contributions of these heroines, highlighting core values of justice and social responsibility. Its argues that the Islamic educational principles championed by these female role models can significantly contribute to advancing women's leadership capabilities, enhancing their digital literacy, and expanding their access to education. This study addresses challenges such as limited access to higher education, societal expectations, and cultural norms. It also highlights specific initiatives, including leadership programs, digital learning platforms, and family education. The findings suggest that the teachings and values of Indonesia’s Muslim Heroines have the potential to help overcome these barriers, it is possible to create supportive environments that empower women to take on leadership roles and actively participate in education.

Gender equality is a very important issue of concern to the whole world. If the issue of women's liberation is the most basic issue among women's struggles, then equality between men and women is considered the most important and core content of this issue. The family is the place where gender issues are socialized and gender knowledge and skills are passed on. In this article, the author will focus on clarifying issues such as: the role of education; propaganda role to raise awareness; the role of division of labor according to gender; Conditions to promote gender equality from family. Through research, the author will provide opinions for discussion and open up future research directions.

Abstract:In response to women's changing roles in labor markets, couples have adopted varied strategies to reconcile career and family needs. Yet, most studies on the gendered division of labor focus almost exclusively on changes either in work or family domain. Doing so neglects the process through which couples negotiate and contest traditional work and family responsibilities. Studies that do examine these tradeoffs have highlighted how work–family strategies range far beyond simple traditional-egalitarian dichotomies but are limited to specific points in time or population subgroups. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and latent-class analysis, this article provides the first population-based estimates of the couple-level tradeoffs inherent in work–family strategies in the United States, documents trends in the share of couples who fall into each of these strategies, and considers social stratification by gender and college education in these trends. Specifically, I identify seven distinct work–family strategies (traditional, neotraditional, her-second-shift, egalitarian, his-second-shift, female-breadwinner, and neither-full-time couples). Egalitarian couples experienced the fastest increase in prevalence among college-educated couples, whereas couples that lacked two full-time earners increased among less-educated couples. Still, about a quarter of all couples adopted "her-second-shift" strategies, with no variation across time, making it the modal work–family strategy among dualearner couples. The long-run, couple-level results support the view that the gender revolution has stalled and suggest that this stall may be caused partly by strong traditional gender preferences, whereas structural resources appear to facilitate gender equality among a selected few.

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Education is pivotal in the global effort to reduce inequalities. Through education, there are numerous opportunities to advance gender+ equality both within and outside of educational institutions. Gender budgeting, a strategy designed to align policies, plans and financial decisions with gender equality commitments, was used in this research to develop approaches through primary education. Research was conducted in collaboration with the biggest municipality in Iceland and three schools during the years 2019 and 2020, employing multiple data collection methods, including the review of policymaking documents and semi‐structured interviews. Through qualitative content and thematic analysis, the research identified several opportunities to foster equality through primary education, categorised into four key themes: policymaking, curriculum, student participation and school–family relations. It is recommended that policy‐based gender budgeting is implemented to prioritise actions that advance equality, social justice and equity within educational systems and broader society.

Family education is a hot issue of widespread concern in today’s society. Some researchers have found there exists a degree of gender inequality in family education, and the influence of this issue on females’ future career choices lacks further study. Therefore, the subject of this essay is the influence of gender equality in family education on a female future career choice. This essay is based on the in-depth study of the existing literature, and data, and carries out a further analytical investigation. The study found that there still exists inequality in family education values, family education investments, and family education expectations in our society. To a certain extent, it causes the difference in the types of career options and income between women and men. And these inequalities have a certain negative impact on female career choices and development.

This study employs visual discourse analysis to reveal the visual elements within the children's book "I AM KARTINI." Its primary objective is to assess how the book conveys the interplay between gender and the pursuit of gender equality, particularly concerning education. The analysis reveals a both the promotion of Gender Equality and the presence of Gender Inequality. "I AM KARTINI" strongly advocates for Gender Equality, emphasizing the critical importance of granting women equal access to education. The book communicates the idea that numerous women recognize education's pivotal role in their lives and society as a whole, championing women's inherent right to the same opportunities enjoyed by men. However, the analysis also uncovers instances of Gender Inequality depicted in the book, connecting patriarchal culture within the Indonesian educational system. The book portrays stereotypes that restrict women to domestic roles, primarily centered on family and household responsibilities. This research highlights the critical importance of examining how gender is represented in children's literature. "I AM KARTINI" serves as a powerful instrument in this endeavor, advocating for gender equality while also highlighting the ongoing challenges related to gender bias and inequality within the Indonesian educational landscape. These findings emphasise the urgent need to recognize and address these issues to foster an inclusive educational environment where every individual has an equal opportunity to thrive.

This article will explore the independence that is actually expected by every human being, both women and men in the framework of education under the title, "Impact of Education on Patriarchal As This article would analyze on the true independence that expected by every human both of women and men in frame of Education with the title , “The Impact of Education on Patriarchate Culture and Gender Equality". In this sense, education must be placed in the perspective of liberation. Education is for all and lasts for life. Patriarchate refers to a system of legitimate relations in the fields of law, economy and politics and strengthens domination relations in a society. The research takes place in the mainland area of East Flores with characteristic of a strong patriarchate culture. Observations were made on the family in the interaction of husband and wife dealing with work and tasks in the realm they carried so that the authors were sent to find out whether there is an influence of education on patriarchate culture and therefore patriarchate culture affects gender equality which has an impact on women's participation. The methodology used in this study is interpretive, with a qualitative model and a phenomenological approach. The data collection technique is done through interviews. This study found that patriarchate culture, gender equality and the involvement of East Flores women that were influenced by the higher education received by the community. Thus, this study is different from the one conducted by Shannon McAlister with the title, “Christ as the Woman Seeking Her Lost Coin: Luke 15:8-10 and Divine Sophia in the Latin West” in the Journal of “Theological Studies”, 2018, Vol. 79, no. 1, pp 7-35

This qualitative study examines the socioeconomic, cultural, familial, and political barriers that restrict women from building professional careers in the Sahiwal district of rural Pakistan. This research aims to find action-oriented solutions and interventions to empower women and drive progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) on gender equality. Interviews were carried out with women of all ages, education levels, and socioeconomic status to provide in-depth insights into the challenges and lived experiences. The Thematic analysis identified common barriers, including societal norms, family obligations, education, workplace discrimination, and geographical variation. The results highlight the importance of a multidimensional strategy specific to local contexts, such as community-based awareness campaigns, inclusive workplace policies, education access regional interventions, and microfinance. The study stresses the interdependence of these barriers and their implications for achieving SDG 5 and emphasizes the necessity for localized, actionable solutions that are contextual and scalable. Pakistan can take short-term and long-term liabilities based on these challenges through focused interventions.

Four important virtues of a woman in the Confucian perspective include Works (being chaste, monogamous, and a virgin when married), Comportment (beauty), Speech, and Conduct (morality, Ethics). These virtues have profoundly influenced the conception of the role of women in traditional Vietnamese culture. Excessive focus on family roles and traditional values limits women's opportunities and rights in the public, political and economic spheres. However, in recent years, Vietnam has made significant progress in realizing gender equality. Investments in education, legal rights, and economic and social development have opened up many opportunities for women to participate in the public sector and contribute to the country's development. In this article, we will focus on clarifying issues such as: Presenting and analyzing four important women's virtues from the point of view of Confucianism in the Pre-Qin period; Finding answers to the questions raised and pointing out the contribution of four important women's virtues from a Confucian point of view in realizing gender equality in Vietnam.

Gender equality is a fundamental principle of social justice that asserts that all individuals, regardless of their gender, should have equal rights, opportunities, and access to resources and power. Researching this phenomenon requires a deep understanding of the dimensions and factors that constitute it. The primary objective of this study is to propose a contextualized and comprehensive analytical model for conducting research related to gender equality. To achieve this, a thorough and systematic literature review was conducted using the PRISMA methodology. From a total of 511 articles located in major databases, 58 were selected. The categorization process led to the identification of 8 dimensions: labor and/or professional, co-responsibility and family reconciliation, education, health and emotions, culture and society, economy, gender-based violence, and freedom and autonomy, along with an open dimension labeled ‘other aspects.’ The final model integrates these dimensions, along with the inherent factors of each, with socio-demographic and ideological variables, resulting in a comprehensive and relevant model for studies on gender equality and subsequent socio-educational interventions based on these findings.

This study aims to identify gender equality of Salafi families in Dieng’s social life that urge the existence of men and women’s roles in the Salafi families. This study applied descriptive qualitative method using case study approach in Kepakisan Village, Batur District, Banjarnegara Regency. The results indicate that the Salafi family's social life includes the social environment, education, and occupation. The Salafi familes are fairly treated without being discriminated such as in social activities and community works. All Salafi children are given equal access and opportunities in education, in which the main focus is religious education. In terms of occupation, Salafi men and women are also given equal access and benefits especially in agricultural sector where husband and wife can work together and help each other.

This study aims to reveal gender-based discrimination, forms of gender education, and the importance of gender education in Acehnese families. This study was conducted by using the method of descriptive qualitative with data collection techniques through observation and interview. The result showed that in Acehnese families, the forms of gender-based discrimination that often faced by women are inequality in housework distribution and childcare. In Aceh, most men still play fewer roles in taking care of children because domestic jobs are seen to be women’s’ responsibilities. Another form of gender-based discrimination in Aceh is domestic violence against women. The result also demonstrated that in Acehnese families there is no gender education because many people do not understand the term of gender equality and gender issues are considered as western culture and still taboo to discuss. Gender education in the family is important because children acquire gender stereotypes at an early age, and they learn about gender equality from their family for the first time. Teaching gender equality to children is never too early, and they never too young to learn about it, they would come out and bring the gender equality in the family and society in general as they will be the pioneer or gender equality when they reach adulthood.

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This study qualitatively examines how dual-earner couples with early school-age children negotiate the division of housework and childcare, moving beyond outcome-focused, static accounts to the dynamics and mechanisms of negotiation. We find that bargaining typically begins as care work concentrates on wives after childbirth and then unfolds asymmetrically within gendered role structures. The normative pairing of “mother-caregiver/father-breadwinner,” though seemingly unsettled under dual earning, is reconstituted as a “priority of roles” that narrows what is negotiable. When husbands hold advantages in income or time, negotiations center on instrumental efficiency; when wives hold such advantages, practical criteria recede and traditional norms silently set the baseline, keeping egalitarian value questions off the table. As a result, bargaining proceeds only insofar as it does not threaten men’s breadwinner status, and many wives shift from early assertive bargaining to accommodation. These dynamics spill over into leisure and family lifestyles. The findings suggest strengthening egalitarian couple partnerships, parenting-skills education, and media initiatives promoting co-parenting.

ABSTRACT This article examines the ways in which culture plays a role in the gender division of household labor. To explore this issue, the study uses data on early-arrival first- and second-generation immigrants living in the United States who have a married/unmarried partner present in the household. Because all of these individuals have grown up under the same laws, institutions, and economic conditions that prevail in the US, the differences between them in the gender division of housework may be attributed to cultural differences in their countries of ancestry. The study finds that the stronger the culture of gender equality in the country of ancestry, the greater the equality in immigrants’ current division of housework. This result is maintained when considering both housework and childcare as household labor. This work is extended by examining how culture operates and is transmitted, and whether culture may influence the work–life balance. HIGHLIGHTS Cultural norms in the country of origin determine allocation of household tasks for immigrants in the host country. More gender-equal norms are associated with a lower gender gap in housework time. Culture affects how and when housework is performed in family life, impacting couples’ work–life balance. Policies aimed at transforming gender norms can help to achieve gender equality.

The division of labor and decision-making within households is highly influenced by gender norms and resource allocation. However, there has been a marked shift away from traditional gender roles in domestic tasks and decision-making in recent years. This study examines the division of domestic responsibilities, childcare, and decision-making within households, as well as the socioeconomic factors that influence these dimensions in Iran. Data come from the “Survey of Married Lifestyle,” which included 1736 married people aged 18 years and over in Tehran, selected through a multi-stage random sampling process. The results reveal that while women are increasingly involved in decision-making, they still primarily shoulder the burden of household chores and childcare. Factors such as women’s education and income, as well as men’s education and dual-earner status, are key determinants of the division of labor in households. Social policies that focus on enhancing women’s access to education and economic opportunities are crucial for promoting gender equality and empowering women in household decision-making.

During the COVID‐19 pandemic in the US, mothers have taken on more of the responsibility for childcare (including remote schooling) and housework. How did dual‐income couples negotiate domestic labor during the pandemic in ways that ended up with women taking on a larger role? Based on in‐depth interviews with 33 parents, we found that men's jobs were often discussed as being more demanding, particularly in their need for protected time, or requiring rigid time commitments, while women's work was considered more flexible and able to accommodate childcare needs. We argue that gendered perceptions about the flexibility of paid work shaped couple's negotiations over the division of labor. While many interviewees considered men's jobs as "simply more demanding,” we propose that this is a gendered perception that reflects entrenched cultural norms that associate masculinity with paid work and thus men's paid work is prioritized in many families. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Gender, Work & Organization is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

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This study examines how female health workers at Gondokusuman I Community Health Center perceive and negotiate gender equality in their household relationships while simultaneously performing public and domestic roles. Although formal equality has increasingly been recognized, women continue to experience structural inequalities in the division of household labor, decision-making, and childcare. Using a qualitative descriptive design with a phenomenological approach, data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with female health workers and analyzed thematically. The findings show that gender equality is understood as a dynamic and contextual process shaped by negotiated values, personal experiences, and inherited cultural norms. Participants demonstrated agency and critical awareness in questioning traditional gender roles. However, their everyday experiences continued to reflect a double burden and subtle power asymmetries within household relationships. Drawing on gender constructivism, Foucault’s concept of power relations, and Butler’s theory of gender performativity, this study argues that equality is not a fixed condition but an outcome of continuous negotiation in everyday social interactions. It recommends strengthening family-based gender equality policies and transforming gender values through education and the reform of cultural narratives.

The current Covid-19 pandemic has dramatically impacted families in the United States as working parents face increased demand for domestic labor at home while losing community and institutional support through pandemic closures. By integrating emerging research on gender norms and expectations regarding the division of household labor for working parents, the impact of Covid-19 on working mothers, and the gendered impact of infrastructure and the pandemic response in the United States, I aim to provide a holistic conceptualization and analysis of gender inequality and the division of labor in the home during the Covid-19 pandemic. Through summarizing and analyzing current literature, this review will contribute to new developments for future exploration in policy and practice and offer a framework for supporting families and working mothers as we move forward in the world of Covid-19.

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It has been found that the unequal division of domestic labor is often considered fair. The finding is that the main causes of gender behavior in the family are the strength of gender norms and expectations, and accountability through social interactions. Housework seems to be a manifestation of the process of internalization and socialization of gender norms. Housework can also be understood as a way for individuals to replicate their gender identity. Through interactive gender behavior, they can behave normally in the social world and avoid the negative consequences of violating gender norms. With the awakening of female consciousness, more and more men will share the responsibility of family. This article uses game theory to examine the reasons behind the long-standing unequal division of household.

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Background: Research has examined how the gendered household division of labor may deter the transition to second birth. However, little research has investigated how workplace norms influence men’s household work. Objective: This paper takes into account labor market structure, workplace norms, and the legal environment governing working conditions to contextualize men’s contribution to household labor and its effect on transition to second birth. Methods: Using data from the Japanese Longitudinal Survey of Adults in the 21st Century (2002 Cohort), we employ fixed-effects models to estimate the effect of workplace norms on men’s contribution to household work and the effect of men’s household work hours on transition to second birth. Results: Japanese male university graduates in large firms do a smaller share of household labor than other men. These men are subject to workplace norms prevalent in firm-internal labor markets, which have been supported by Japanese Supreme Court rulings. These norms influence men’s allocation of time between the workplace and the home. Moreover, analysis of the transition to second birth indicates that husband’s share of household work is an important predictor of second birth, especially for dual-earner couples. Conclusions: Our empirical results suggest that unless changes are made in Japanese employment law and workplace norms, dual-earner couples in particular will continue to face difficulties proceeding to a second birth. Contribution: This paper demonstrates how the economic and cultural context can create disincentives for men to contribute to household labor, which in turn lowers the probability of transition to second birth.

Studies on aging tend to apply a traditional approach to gender roles. This is especially evident in studies of widowhood, as responses to this life transition tend to be shaped by gender. Studies on food and widowhood in old age suggest that men and women differ when it comes to food related life after the loss of a spouse. As the traditionalist story goes, men face practical challenges because they lack cooking skills whereas women face emotional challenges because they are no longer the food provider. However, this research often overlooks that married couples may have had non-traditional ways of dividing domestic household tasks, and that this division of labor is likely to have affected the way in which widows and widowers experience and handle food related challenges. Applying a life course perspective to 31 qualitative interviews, I show that the way older men and women adjust to food activities in widowhood is shaped by the way these activities were shared in their marriage rather than by gender per se.

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Background Gendered roles and household responsibilities characterize the social fabric of many patriarchal societies where traditional norms often dictate a clear division of labor between men and women. These deeply entrenched gendered expectations, for several decades, continue to shape the daily lives, opportunities, the physical and psychological wellbeing of women. In the semi-arid regions of Ghana, patriarchy and traditional gender norms are particularly pronounced. Methods and materials Utilizing data from a cross-sectional survey (N = 1100 smallholder farmers), this study examined the role of women’s autonomy on shared-household responsibilities (SHRs). The composite measure of women’s autonomy was statistically robust (α = 0.823). Results Women’s autonomy was associated with increased odds of shared responsibility for childcare (OR=1.872; P < 0.001) but less so with laundry (OR=0.635; P < 0.001) and food preparation (OR=0.764; P < 0.05). However, female-headed households were more associated with shared responsibility for laundry (OR=5.617; P < 0.001) and food preparation (OR=2.546; P < 0.05) with no significant observation for childcare. Regarding marital structure, polygamous households were less associated with shared responsibility for laundry (OR=0.233; P < 0.01) and food preparation (OR=0.361; P < 0.01) with no significant observation for childcare. Moreover, religion, age, and household wealth significantly predicted shared household responsibilities in the study context. Conclusions Women’s autonomy is strongly associated with shared responsibility for childcare, but less associated with laundry and food preparation in Semi-Arid Northern Ghana, with notable differences based on household headship, marital structure, religion, age, and wealth. Findings underscore the need for more policies and programs that seeks to empower women at the household levels in rural agrarian settings.

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ABSTRACT The current study investigated early gender differences in mental rotation and navigation and the mediating role of parental gender socialization in these two types of spatial skills. A total of 129 Chinese children aged between 4 and 6 were tested in Chongqing using a mental rotation task and a wayfinding task. Their parents’ gender socialization was operationalized as attitudes toward gender-stereotyped toys. The t-test suggested a significant male advantage in navigation, yet no significant gender differences were found in mental rotation. Meanwhile, the mediation model revealed that parents’ attitudes toward masculine toys had a mediating effect between gender and the performance of wayfinding tasks. Girls’ parents held a more negative attitude than boys’ parents toward their children playing with masculine toys, which accounted for girls’ worse performance in the task. The findings extend the current literature by exploring gender differences in navigation in early childhood and highlight the effect of parenthood on the development of spatial skills. Moreover, the current study also sheds light on the effect of family settings and culture on spatial skills.

The paper discusses holistic integration of gender concepts at tender ages. This study aimed toinvestigate parents’ participation in socializing children to gender equality and assess the effect of lack of parental socialization of children to gender equality. Three hundred and fifty (350) respondents were purposively selected from Kicukiro, Bugesera, Musanze, Nyanza and Nyamasheke. Data were collected through questionnaire, interviews and focus group discussion and qualitatively analyzed using content analysis. Findings revealed that there is lack of parental gender socialization of children as it is negatively perceived in Rwandan families. Gender equality is perceived by 75 % of respondents to be the cause of family conflicts and violence. Furthermore, 69% of all respondents accuse the theory of gender equality to divert females from their responsibilities which results in family dysfunctionality. In addition, 42% of respondents consider gender equality as a way of western people to disorganize developing countries. Lack of parental gender socialization of children at family level affects children's adulthood. It presents enormous and long-lasting consequences to both females and males. Respondents confirmed that there is a considerable number of females who did not attend school because fees were reserved to boys. On the other hand, male respondents confirmed that being overpowered in childhood negatively affects adulthood relationship with their wives. Socializing children to gender equality at family level from their tender ages would be one of the best strategies to eradicate Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and discrimination.

Do leave-taking fathers who 'undo' gender in their division of domestic labour and responsibilities also ‘undo’ gender in relation to their children’s gender socialization? This exploratory qualitative study seeks to understand how leave-taking fathers in South Korea ( N  = 17) experience and envision their children’s gender socialization by identifying three types of fathers. For ‘committed’ fathers, leave-taking is an extension of their genuine convictions and best efforts to raise children based on feminist ideals, but contradictory messages from non-parental influences such as preschools pose challenges. ‘Conflicted’ fathers undergo significant changes in their views about men and women’s roles through leave uptake but confess to still holding rigid views about children’s gender socialization. ‘Receptive’ fathers demonstrate more open and moderately flexible attitudes to children’s gender roles than the ‘conflicted’ fathers, although not as consciously, proactively, or consistently as the ‘committed’ fathers. The findings indicate that fathers’ uptake of leave leads to diverging, rather than uniform trajectories in fathers’ development of attitudes and behaviours toward children’s socialization. The findings point to the need to consider inconsistencies operating at multiple levels of the ‘gender trap,’ including between fathers’ attitudes toward adult and children’s gender roles, fathers’ behaviours and attitudes, and parental and non-parental influences.

Gender socialization begins early in childhood, with parents playing a crucial role in shaping children's gender-related beliefs and behaviors. This review examines how parenting styles, parental gender attitudes, and parental reinforcement practices contribute to the development of sexist beliefs and gender stereotypes in children. Following the PRISMA framework, a systematic search of Scopus, PubMed, and APA PsycNet databases was conducted for peer-reviewed articles published between 2013 and 2023. Studies were included if they empirically examined parental influences on children's gender socialization and were published in English. A total of 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were thematically analyzed. Findings revealed that parenting styles significantly shape gender socialization, with strict and authoritarian parenting being associated with stronger adherence to traditional gender roles, while indulgent and egalitarian parenting approaches were linked to more gender-equitable attitudes in children. Regarding parental gender attitudes, parents who held traditional gender beliefs were more likely to reinforce gendered expectations in their children, leading to the internalization of sexist beliefs. In contrast, parents with egalitarian attitudes fostered more flexible gender norms and reduced gender bias in their children. Additionally, parental reinforcement practices played a crucial role, as parents who actively encouraged gender-conforming behaviors reinforced stereotypical gender roles, whereas those who provided diverse play opportunities and non-stereotypical role models supported a broader spectrum of gender expression. Despite the global relevance of gender socialization, most included studies were conducted in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) nations, underscoring the need for further research in non-WEIRD contexts. The review highlighted the critical role of parenting in shaping children's gender ideologies and calls for interventions that promote gender-equitable attitudes. Future research should explore diverse socio-cultural perspectives, including socioeconomic status, parental education, and dual-income households, to develop a more nuanced understanding of how parenting influences gender socialization among children.

No abstract available

ABSTRACT As a set of strategies or skill development processes, parental socialization has an extensive field of themes. Few among them are as critical and controversial as racial-ethnic socialization (RES) and gender socialization. By virtue of its collected offerings, this special issue asserts that these themes should be viewed and understood together. My commentary explores what these socialization themes together might be asserting to the field, collectively and individually, new issues raised by the research presented, and what may be a critical missing aspect of inquiry in the field. The field of racial-ethnic socialization has now reached its adulthood. What we have learned has shown racial-ethnic socialization to be a consistently successful tool to better the lives of children throughout their development and this remains important. Gender socialization has a long and varied history of study and is more clearly subject to societal shifts in gender perceptions and attitudes. As such, advancement in the field is subject to ever-changing growth in our thinking about healthy gender roles and gender equality. Our sense of what is appropriate and meaningful gender socialization has vastly transformed. What does it take to create and live in an unbiased world? The ebb and flow of macrosocietal shifts create a vital environment where parents must constantly recalibrate their parenting to race and gender dynamics to achieve successful outcomes for their children, a particularly weighty additional reality of diverse families.

Objective: This study examines the portrayals of mothers and fathers in children’s picture books read by millions of parents and children in their formative years. We investigate the extent to which these books present rigid parental stereotypes that misrepresent the potential of family leaders. Method: We performed a content analysis of 203 prominent children’s picture books from recent years to assess the appearances, activities, and emotions of mothers and fathers. Results: Rather than transcending narrow gender stereotypes, fathers in the most-read books continue to be underrepresented, relatively hands-off parents. Mothers are generally portrayed as emotional parents who complete traditional chores and nurture children. Conclusion: The gender socialization of children and parents via children’s books contributes to the notion that mothers and fathers cannot perform as equals in homes or workplaces. Representations of mothers and fathers differ substantially, with fathers playing a secondary role in parenting if they appear at all.

Parental gender socialization refers to ways in which parents teach their children social expectations associated with gender. Relatively little is known about the mechanisms underlying gender socialization. An overview of cognitive and neural processes underlying parental gender socialization is provided. Regarding cognitive processes, evidence exists that parents’ implicit and explicit gender stereotypes, attitudes, and gendered attributions are implicated in gender socialization. Other cognitive factors, such as intergroup attitudes, gender essentialism, internal motivation for parenting without gender stereotypes, gender identity, and conflict resolution are theoretically relevant mechanisms underlying gender socialization, but need further investigation. Regarding neural processes, studies demonstrated that attentional processing, conflict monitoring, behavior regulation, and reward processing might underlie stereotypes and biased behavior. However, more research is necessary to test whether these neural processes are also related to parental gender socialization. Based on this overview, a framework is presented of neural and cognitive factors that were theoretically or empirically related to gender socialization.

This study aims to analyze parents’ educational paradigms in shaping the gender roles of boys and girls, as well as their implications for the social reproduction of gender. Family education is the primary arena in the process of children’s gender socialization. Parents act as primary agents who instill values, norms, and practices related to gender roles through daily interactions within the family environment. This study uses a qualitative method with a descriptive-exploratory design. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, observations, and documentation involving parents who have school-aged boys and/or girls. Interviews were also conducted with children and community figures. The results of the study show that there are three patterns of parental education in shaping children’s gender roles, namely the traditional pattern, which tends to reproduce gender stereotypes. This study also emphasizes that parental education plays a strategic role in shaping children’s gender identity and contributes to the reproduction or transformation of gender norms in society. These patterns indicate that parental education is not homogeneous, but is influenced by social and cultural contexts, as well as parents’ knowledge of gender issues. As a recommendation, parents are encouraged to adopt parenting styles that do not differentiate children’s roles based on gender and to provide equal opportunities for both boys and girls in education, household activities, and personal development. Educational institutions are expected to support family education by strengthening gender equality values in the learning process and school activities. The government, particularly the Office of Religious Affairs, is expected to provide education for prospective couples about the importance of gender equality and justice within the household.

No abstract available

In recognition of the interactions and similarities between volunteering and unpaid care work, this research paper published by the International Labour Organization and United Nation Volunteers reviews and analyzes the gendered patterns of volunteering and unpaid care work in lower-income countries by combining a literature review with a statistical analysis of Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic and resultant lockdown has increased the burden of unpaid care work. Hence it is essential to evaluate the crisis response in change of women’s work burden and gender norms of their unpaid care work and social status. OBJECTIVE: To investigate change in women’s job roles after second the wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and its effect on physical and psychological burden of work along with identification of common contributors of gendering of care work. METHOD: Using a structured questionnaire and simple random sampling technique, the study was conducted on married women (n = 691) in West Bengal, India after the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: Significant job loss (p = 0.014) occurred during COVID-19. Unpaid care work increased (p = 0.04) with reduction in rest hours (p = 0.002). 62.3% women felt increased burden of work. Work burden score increased with age (p = 0.003), reduction of rest (p < 0.001) and increased care work (p = 0.022). Gendering occurred due to male partner’s less contribution to care work and respondents’ cognitive agreement with expected gender role. Gendering of work is less in urban areas (OR = 0.379, p = 0.008) and higher income group (OR = 5.37, p = 0.026). Women faced more gendering in case of job loss (OR = 9.27, p = 0.001) or if burdened with work (OR = 3.92, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The impact of employability of women on their work role during the COVID-19 outbreak has highlighted both theoretical and practical significance that opens up the scope of further studies at national and larger ethno-geographic levels.

Introduction Unpaid care work is mainly performed by women, whose mental health is more affected by caregiving burden and work-family conflict compared to men. COVID-19 containment measures may have exacerbated existing gender inequalities in both unpaid care work and adverse mental health outcomes. This scoping review provides an overview of recent evidence on the impact of COVID-19 containment measures on unpaid care work and mental health for subgroups of caregivers at the intersection of gender and other social differences (e.g., ethnicity, age, class) in Europe. Methods and analysis Our study was informed and guided by Arksey and O’Malley’s methodological framework. We searched six academic databases (Medline, PsycInfo, Scopus, CINAHL, Social Sciences Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, ASSIA) and hand-searched the reference lists of selected articles to identify relevant peer-reviewed research articles published between 1 March 2020 and 7 September 2022. In addition, we conducted a grey literature search using Google Scholar and a targeted hand search on known international and European websites. We included studies that reported gender-disaggregated results on unpaid care work and mental health in the context of COVID-19 containment measures in Europe. Two reviewers independently screened all abstracts and full texts for eligibility and extracted the relevant data. The results were synthesised narratively. Results and discussion Our results suggest a greater gender gap in unpaid care work division and, to a lesser extent, in mental health, which is unfavourable towards women and mothers. Despite this, we see a break in the traditional division of childcare, with fathers taking on a greater role in family work, which makes us optimistic about the division of care work in the post-COVID-19 era. This research also shows that among European women, population groups often understudied, such as women who are single parents, disabled or of colour, have the highest increase in unpaid care work and greatest deterioration in wellbeing.

The care economy is a developing ecosystem, with the potential to transform lives, societies, and economies. Research and strategies to transform the sector have centred around the globally agreed-upon 5Rs framework of Recognition, Redistribution, Reduction, Reward of Care Work, and Representation of care workers in decision-making and policy. The innovations around reward have, however, been limited to formalisation of paid care work, which is often in the informal sector, amounting to increases in remuneration and benefits for this category of workers. Unpaid care workers at the household level are consequently excluded from these interventions because they still are not considered a part of the formal or informal workforce.  This article approaches the reward for unpaid care work (UCW) from the perspective of norms and restrictions around women’s agency to participate in income-generating activities. The rationale for the study is based on the premise that this category is not addressed, and it significantly impacts women over their life courses. It examines the reward for UCW through the gender role theory, which ascribes specific duties to women, and the life course theory, which connects gendered activities to life outcomes. This study uses descriptive statistics obtained through a survey and qualitative data obtained from focus group discussions with men to amplify the norms that dictate women’s work engagement and their ability to control monetary resources. Based on this, it presents the need for monetary and non-financial rewards for UCW to improve well-being and promote positive trajectories in women’s life courses. 

Abstract This study examines whether unpaid care work has increased after the COVID-19 pandemic and how it hinders progress made toward gender equality. It includes data from a sample commissioned by UNDP Kosovo, using 1417 respondents. The increase in unpaid care work in Kosovo has been influenced by demographic and socioeconomic characteristics like gender, age, marital status, ethnicity, area, and family composition, as examined through probit regression. Women and individuals who are married or cohabiting with a partner are more likely to have experienced increased hours of unpaid care work related to household chores during the COVID-19 pandemic. Older individuals, Albanians (possibly due to stronger preexisting support networks and higher representation), and Prishtina residents (potentially benefiting from greater access to paid help and being in the capital) are less likely to have increased hours of unpaid care work. This paper highlights the urgent need for sustainable policies recognizing and addressing the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work on women, particularly during crises. Investing in accessible childcare services, promoting flexible work arrangements, and encouraging equitable distribution of domestic responsibilities within households are crucial steps toward mitigating gender inequality and fostering a more resilient society.

Our paper examines  trends in gender inequalities in unpaid domestic and care work over the short‐ and long‐term in Australia, including assessing the impact of the COVID‐19 lockdowns. We use the concept of time—historical, biographical and transitional—as a framework for our analyses. Drawing on data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey, we find wide and continuing gender gaps in unpaid work over the past two decades. We demonstrate that parenthood is a far greater producer and exacerbator of gender inequalities in unpaid domestic and care work than COVID‐19 lockdowns.

Objective To describe how men and women divided childcare and housework demands during the height of the first Covid-19 lockdown in the UK, and whether these divisions were associated with worsening mental health during the pandemic. Background School closures and homeworking during the Covid-19 crisis have resulted in an immediate increase in unpaid care work, which draws new attention to gender inequality in divisions of unpaid care work. Methods Data come from the wave 9 (2017–19) of Understanding Society and the following April (n = 15,426) and May (n = 14,150) waves of Understanding Society Covid-19 study. Psychological distress was measured using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) at both before and during the lockdown, and unpaid care work was measured during the lockdown. Linear regression models were used. Results Women spent much more time on unpaid care work than men during lockdown, and it was more likely to be the mother than the father who reduced working hours or changed employment schedules due to increased time on childcare. Women who spent long hours on housework and childcare were more likely to report increased levels of psychological distress. Working parents who adapted their work patterns increased more psychological distress than those who did not. This association was much stronger if he or she was the only member in the household who adapted their work patterns, or if she was a lone mother. Fathers increased more psychological distress if they reduced work hours but she did not, compared to neither reducing work hours. Conclusion There are continued gender inequalities in divisions of unpaid care work. Juggling home working with homeschooling and childcare as well as extra housework is likely to lead to poor mental health for people with families, particularly for lone mothers.

No abstract available

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic and related closures of day care centres and schools significantly increased the amount of care work done by parents. There has been much speculation over whether the pandemic increased or decreased gender equality in parental care work. Based on representative data for Germany from spring 2020 and winter 2021 we present an empirical analysis that shows that although gender inequality in the division of care work increased to some extent in the beginning of the pandemic, it returned to the pre-pandemic level in the second lockdown almost nine months later. These results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic neither aggravated nor lessened inequality in the division of unpaid care work among mothers and fathers in any persistent way in Germany.

Globally, women are said to be disadvantaged in the world of paid and/or unpaid work. The study aims at examining the implications of unpaid care responsibilities on gender inequality in the Jirapa Municipality of the Upper West Region, Ghana. The mixed method approach was used for data collection and analyses. In-depth interviews using a questionnaire and an interview guide were used to collect qualitative and quantitative data. The questionnaires were analyzed descriptively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 22 while the interviews were analyzed using the thematic analysis. Findings from the study revealed that inequality caused by unpaid care work is noticeable in the areas of governance, education and paid employment. For instance, whereas the informal sector employs more women, the formal sector employment is largely dominated by men who tend to have sustained jobs. In all these situations women in rural areas tend to be the most affected by gender inequalities. Interconnected variables of vulnerability and suppression including residential status (rural or urban settings) intersect with gender to make rural women worse off in terms of gender inequality. The study recommends cash remittances to unemployed ‘ housewives’ in rural areas and massive infrastructural development of rural communities to guarantee gender responsive public service to women.

Covid-19 has created a challenge and opportunity to change collective economic and care systems While the care deficit that confronts the UK pre-dates the pandemic, contemporary events have made it clear that care is a foundational element of a safe, functioning society Building on research that shows new technologies are being used to augment the work of paid carers in nations facing labour shortages, funding constraints, and hostility to immigration, this paper considers the potential for technological developments to change care practices, including during this unprecedented crisis Using a qualitative research approach, the paper opens up new questions about established systems of paid and unpaid care and evaluates the potential for technological investments to remedy the weakened care infrastructure in a post-Covid-19 environment In doing so, it emphasises the sensory dimensions of care, which will need to be addressed in how governments in the UK and beyond respond to technological developments

ABSTRACT This article explores two policy pathways – parental leave and flexible work –as complementary policy interventions aimed at promoting gender equality in unpaid care and household work. Drawing on Canadian data from the 2021 International Familydemic Survey, we examine the relationship between fathers’ previous use of parental leave, and current use of flexible work arrangements (flextime and remote work), and their involvement in unpaid care work during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings support the following three arguments: First, in numerous countries, including Canada, where socially exclusive policy designs can limit fathers’ take up of parental leave, flexible work arrangements can provide additional opportunities to increase fathering involvement beyond the early months of parenting. Second, our data indicate that unpaid care work sharing is enhanced by fathers’ parental leaves and flexible working; however, fathers who have taken parental leave report dividing a wider set of household work and care tasks with their partners. Third, although their policy designs, aims, and legislation architectures differ in Canada, we maintain that parental leaves and flexible work arrangements are both more than employment policies; they are care/work policies that enact ‘social care’ and ‘democratic care’, and support gender equality and work-family justice goals.

This paper develops a nuanced understanding of how educational attainment is associated with time allocation trends of Japanese men and women by examining the gendered division of labor in Japan between 1991 and 2016. The analysis reveals that while university‐educated men and women led a slow shift toward greater equality in housework sharing during these years, overall traditional highly gendered patterns persisted. Husbands continued to spend considerably more time on paid work and wives took care of most housework and childcare. There is no evidence for convergence in paid work or childcare for any educational group. In childcare, both men and women across educational groups increased their time investment. Even in families where wives have university education and see themselves primarily as workers, I document only limited shift away from the traditional division of labor between 1991 and 2016. I conclude that the transformation of employment practices in addition to changes in individuals' beliefs and state work–family balance policies may be necessary for a more meaningful social change.

School and nursery closures and homeworking during the Covid-19 crisis have resulted in an immediate increase in unpaid care work, particularly for parents. Amongst contemporary couples in the UK, women spent more time than men doing housework, childcare and caring for adults prior to the crisis; thus, lockdown draws new attention to gender inequality in divisions of unpaid care work. This study aims to answer how couples in the UK divided childcare and housework during lockdown and whether this is associated with changes in levels of psychological distress. Data for this study come from the April and May waves of Understanding Society Covid-19 study. Psychological distress was measured using the GHQ score (ranges from 0 to 36). Unpaid care work included men and women’s hours spent on childcare and housework and the impact of increased unpaid care work on employment schedules. We found that every week, women spent 5 more hours on housework and 10 more hours on childcare than men during lockdown, and this increased housework and childcare was associated with higher levels of psychological distress for women. One-third of parents adapted their work patterns because of childcare/ homeschooling. Men and women who adapted their work patterns had on average 1.16 and 1.39 higher GHQ scores than those who did not. This association was much stronger if he or she was the only member in the household who adapted their work patterns, or if she was a lone mother. Only 10% of fathers reduced work hours due to care work compared to 20% of mothers. Fathers had more psychological distress if they reduced work hours but she did not, compared to neither reducing work hours. Our research suggests that lockdown has hit people with young families and lone mothers particularly hard in terms of mental health, and continued gender inequality in divisions of unpaid care work during lockdown may be putting women at a greater risk of psychological distress.

Nigeria has policies and strategies in place to promote gender equality, participation and empowerment. Nevertheless, women‟s socio-economic remains significantly low. Reasons for all of these are rooted in three major challenges: socio-cultural barriers, gender stereotypes, and illiteracy among the populace. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to evaluate women unpaid domestic work reflecting on the interplay of gender, culture and stereotypes. Unfortunately, unpaid domestic care work is generally perceived to be less valuable than paid work, it is ignored, under-estimated and not considered to be “work”; even by the women and men who engage in and benefit directly from these activities. The paper showcases how gender responsive approaches in division of labour can be utilized for women domestic unpaid work to be recognised and its economic value estimated.

This article uses a novel experimental approach to measure whether men and women actually differ in their gender role attitudes. Recent research has shown that operationalizing gender role attitudes on a unidimensional scale ranging from "egalitarian" to "traditional" is problematic. Instead, their multidimensionality must to be taken into account. Similarly, an ideal measurement tool should consider that gender norms are applied conditionally, i.e., extensive information on the situational context must be provided. In this article, both preconditions are met by using a multifactorial survey experiment. The vignettes used in the survey experiment contain extensive contextual information on fictional couples' division of paid and unpaid work. In addition, the experimental variation of this information (e.g., the vignette persons' gender, the presence and age of children, and the partners' shares of paid and unpaid work) allows to disentangle the different dimensions that may influence (different) gender role attitudes of men and women. Results show no gender difference in attitudes: On average, men and women have "classical" egalitarian gender role attitudes.

No abstract available

As primary carers of children, mothers provide a central role in mediating and negotiating children’s digital media use in the home. In parental mediation research, this work is often reported with a gender-neutral tone, implying both parents play an equal role. This study challenges this bias by unmasking the mediation practices and experiences of mothers. Qualitative interviews revealed mediation is bound by maternal desires to protect, guide and educate children in their media use. The intensity of this care role, often conducted in parallel with other unpaid and paid work, also leads mothers to deploy self-satisfying strategies that facilitate repose. The study illustrates how the gendered role and experience of mothering influences the mediation strategies mothers’ use and argues for broader recognition of these nuanced practices in parental mediation research. It also discusses the implications and impact of parental mediation on the unpaid digital care work of mothers.

Care work is the heartbeat of every society: it contributes to our wellbeing as a nation and is crucial for our social and economic development. Yet the disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care work results in time poverty and significant opportunity costs, particularly among the poorest and most marginalized women and girls.  This policy brief outlines why unpaid care work is a critical development, economic and gender equality issue for Kenya. It draws on two sets of evidence from Oxfam’s Women’s Economic Empowerment and Care (WE-Care) programme, which explore the impact of women and girls’ heavy and unequal unpaid care responsibilities both before and during COVID-19.