掩味

… masking bitter taste of drugs include taste masking … taste masking by polymer coating; taste masking by conventional granulation; taste masking with ion-exchange resins; taste masking …

… There are three approaches used to mask the bitter test of drug substances: Firstly, masking the unpleasant … Masking the bitter taste of drug was achieved by using acesul- …

Many drugs and desirable phytochemicals are bitter, and bitter tastes are aversive. Food and pharmaceutical manufacturers share a common need for bitterness-masking strategies that allow them to deliver useful quantities of the active compounds in an acceptable form and in this review we compare and contrast the challenges and approaches by researchers in both fields. We focus on physical approaches, i.e., micro- or nano-structures to bind bitter compounds in the mouth, yet break down to allow release after they are swallowed. In all of these methods, the assumption is the degree of bitterness suppression depends on the concentration of bitterant in the saliva and hence the proportion that is bound. Surprisingly, this hypothesis has only rarely been fully tested using a combination of adequate human sensory trials and measurements of binding. This is especially true in pharmaceutical systems, perhaps due to the greater experimental challenges in sensory analysis of drugs.

… drugs; however, more recently, the most intense research is performed on the reduction of bitter or astringent taste … the low compliance of patients taking bitter drugs for longer times. In …

… Taste masking becomes a pre-requisite for bitter drugs to improve the patient compliance especially in the pediatric and geriatric population. This article focuses on the current trends in …

Taste masking of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) containing multiple bitter components remains an important challenge. In this study, berberine (BER) in alkaloids and phillyrin (PHI) in flavonoid glycosides, which are common bitter components in traditional Chinese medicines, were selected as model drugs. Chitosan (CS) was used to mask their unfriendly taste. Firstly, from the molecular level, we explained the taste-masking mechanism of CS on those two bitter components in detail. Based on those taste-masking mechanisms, the bitter taste of a mixture of BER and PHI was easily masked by CS in this work. The physicochemical characterization results showed the taste-masking compounds formed by CS with BER (named as BER/CS) and PHI (named as PHI/CS) were uneven in appearance. The drug binding efficiency of BER/CS and PHI/CS was 50.15 ± 2.63% and 67.10 ± 2.52%, respectively. The results of DSC, XRD, FTIR and molecular simulation further indicated that CS mainly masks the bitter taste by disturbing the binding site of bitter drugs and bitter receptors in the oral cavity via forming hydrogen bonds between its hydroxyl or amine groups and the nucleophilic groups of BER and PHI. The taste-masking evaluation results by the electronic tongue test confirmed the excellent taste-masking effects on alkaloids, flavonoid glycosides or a mixture of the two kinds of bitter components. The in vitro release as well as in vivo pharmacokinetic results suggested that the taste-masked compounds in this work could achieve rapid drug release in the gastric acid environment and did not influence the in vivo pharmacokinetic results of the drug. The taste-masking method in this work may have potential for the taste masking of traditional Chinese medicine compounds containing multiple bitter components.

Suppressing the bitter taste of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) largely has been a major clinical challenge due to complex and diverse metabolites and high dispersion of bitter metabolites in liquid preparations. In this work, we developed a novel strategy for recognizing bitter substances, hiding their bitter taste, and elucidated the mechanism of flavor masking in TCM. Huanglian Jie-Du Decoction (HLJDD) with an intense bitter taste was studied as a typical case. UHPLC-MS/MS was used to analyze the chemical components in HLJDD, whereas the bitter substances were identified by pharmacophores. Additionally, the screening results of the pharmacophores were further validated by using experimental assays. The mask formula of HLJDD was effectively screened under the condition of clear bitter substances. Subsequently, computational chemistry, molecular docking, and infrared characterization (IR) techniques were then used to explicate the mechanism of flavor masking. Consequently, neotame, γ-CD, and mPEG2000-PLLA2000 significantly reduced the bitterness of HLJDD. Specifically, mPEG2000-PLLA2000 increased the colloid proportion in the decoction system and minimized the distribution of bitter components in the real solution. Sweetener neotame suppressed the perception of bitter taste and inhibited bitter taste receptor activation to eventually reduce the bitter taste. The γ-CD included in the decoction bound the hydrophobic groups of the bitter metabolites in real solution and “packed” all or part of the bitter metabolites into the “cavity”. We established a novel approach for screening bitter substances in TCM by integrating virtual screening and experimental assays. Based on this strategy, the bitter taste masking of TCM was performed from three different aspects, namely, changing the drug phase state, component distribution, and interfering with bitter taste signal transduction. Collectively, the methods achieved a significant effect on bitter taste suppression and taste masking. Our findings will provide a novel strategy for masking the taste of TCM liquid preparation/decoction, which will in return help in improving the clinical efficacy of TCM.

Objective The aim of the present study was to carry out a systematic research on bitterness quantification to provide a reference for scholars and pharmaceutical developers to carry out drug taste masking research. Significance: The bitterness of medications poses a significant concern for clinicians and patients. Scientifically measuring the intensity of drug bitterness is pivotal for enhancing drug palatability and broadening their clinical utility. Methods The current study was carried out by conducting a systematic literature review that identified relevant papers from indexed databases. Numerous studies and research are cited and quoted in this article to summarize the features, strengths, and applicability of quantitative bitterness assessment methods. Results In our research, we systematically outlined the classification and key advancements in quantitative research methods for assessing drug bitterness, including in vivo quantification techniques such as traditional human taste panel methods, as well as in vitro quantification methods such as electronic tongue analysis. It focused on the quantitative methods and difficulties of bitterness of natural drugs with complex system characteristics and their difficulties in quantification, and proposes possible future research directions. Conclusion The quantitative methods of bitterness were summarized, which laid an important foundation for the construction of a comprehensive bitterness quantification standard system and the formulation of accurate, efficient and rich taste masking strategies.

The majority of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) found in oral dosage forms have unpleasant or obnoxious taste. Taste is one of the important parameters which governs patient compliance and also decides the success of a product in the market. Undesirable taste or the bitter taste is a major challenge that formulation scientist faces with many drugs. Hence, oral administration of bitter drugs is a big challenge, especially for pediatric patients. This article focuses on various tastes masking techniques by which the characteristics of the dosage form are improved and better patient compliance can be achieved. The article also discusses various recent taste masking evaluation techniques used in oral pharmaceutical formulations. The pharmaceutical companies are now engaged in developing novel techniques to overcome the problem of taste masking by numerous patents filed for taste masking. Lists of patents for taste masking are discussed and how these patents overcome the limitations of conventional approaches of taste masking is also reviewed. The present article also emphasizes various patented platform technologies based on different techniques used for taste masking. The important features and principles involved in taste-masking approaches of various patented technologies are also discussed. A better understanding of these new patents and patented technologies will help formulation scientists to select the most suited technology for development of new products with improved taste.

… sufficient means for taste masking a number of bitter drugs. Another … taste masking technologies applied in pharmaceutical technologies. It is evident that the taste masking of bitter drugs …

Taste is the maximum valuable factor within the ca Taste is the maximum valuable factor within the case of orally drugs administering. Flavor covering is a prerequisite for bitter tablets to better the patient compliance, particularly in the paediatrics and geriatric population. The hassle of the sour taste of drug in pediatric formulations is a completely huge task to the formulators on this gift time. Overlaying is an effective device for the development of the sour taste of medication of patient compliance which sooner or later comes to a decision the commercial achievement of the product. In recent times, two maximum usually software are utilized to conquer the horrific flavor of the drug. The primary software consists of reduction of drug solubility within the saliva and second to modify the potential of the drug to interact with taste receptor. At present various methods are available in the market to masks the unwanted taste of the drugs. Some of them are the mass extrusion strategies and ion trade resins, molecular complexes of drugs with other chemical substances, coating of drug debris, melting method, micro encapsulation by using a formation of inclusion complexes, stable dispersions, prodrugs. USe of orally drugs administering: Flavor covering is a prerequisite for bitter tablets to better the patient compliance, particularly in the paediatrics and geriatric population. The hassle of the sour taste of drug in pediatric formulations is a completely huge task to the formulators on this gift time. Overlaying is an effective device for the development of the sour taste of medication of patient compliance which sooner or later comes to a decision the commercial achievement of the product. In recent times, two maximum usually software are utilized to conquer the horrific flavour of the drug. The primary software consists of reduction of drug solubility within the saliva and second to modify the potential of the drug to interact with taste receptor. At present various methods are available in the market to masks the unwanted taste of the drugs. Some of them are the mass extrusion strategies and ion trade resins, molecular complexes of drugs with other chemical substances, coating of drug debris, melting method, micro-encapsulation by using a formation of inclusion complexes, stable dispersions, prodrugs

A variety of pharmacologically active substances, including chemotherapeutic drugs and the substances from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), always exhibit potent bioactivities after oral administration. However, their unpleasant taste (such as bitterness) and/or odor always decrease patient compliance and thus compromise their curative efficacies in clinical application. Therefore, the developments of taste-masking techniques are of great significance in improving their organoleptic properties. However, though a variety of taste-masking techniques have been successfully used to mask the unpalatable taste of chemotherapeutic drugs, their suitability for TCM substances is relatively limited. This is mainly due to the fact that the bitter ingredients existing in multicomponent TCM systems (i.e., effective fractions, single Chinese herbs, and compound preparations) are always unclear, and thus, there is lack of tailor-made taste-masking techniques to be utilized to conceal their unpleasant taste. The relevant studies are also relatively limited. As a whole, three types of taste-masking techniques are generally applied to TCM, including (i) functional masking via sweeteners, bitter blockers, and taste modifiers; (ii) physical masking via polymer film-coating or lipid barrier systems; and (iii) biochemical masking via intermolecular interaction, β-cyclodextrin inclusion, or ion-exchange resins. This review fully summarizes the results reported in this field with the purpose of providing an informative reference for relevant readers.

… other, which may provide different taste masking efficiency to a drug substance. As seen in Table … for masking bitter taste and to select an appropriate vehicle for reconstitution of drug-in-…

Due to patient compliance and convenience, oral drug delivery is still the most preferred route of drug administration. But the taste of certain drugs is a major issue, and it...

… In the present study, bitterness masking of a weakly basic drug by ionic polymers, Amberlite and Carbopol was evaluated. A quantitative parameter, bitterness distance was generated …

The majority of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) found in oral dosage forms have unpleasant or obnoxious taste including, bitter, sour, salt, sweet and umami tastes. Taste is now one of the most important factors influencing the quality of the product, hence therapeutic value, compliance, and acceptance of the patient. Masking the unpleasant taste of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) is a major challenge in the pharmaceutical oral dosage form design and in the development of such oral dosage forms, especially those used for pediatric patients. The desire of improved palatability in these products has prompted the development of numerous formulations with improved performance and acceptability. This reason is an initiative for the development of various taste masking technologies by which the characteristics of the dosage form is improved and good patient compliance is achieved. The present article reviews the earlier applications and methodologies of taste masking and discusses the most recent developments and approaches of bitterness reduction and to give an idea about the traditional and recent taste masking evaluation techniques whereby, increasing palatability for oral pharmaceuticals.

… the bitter taste attributes vary markedly among different compound classes, predominantly … bitter substances, this paper synthesizes masking strategies tailored to different types of bitter …

… taste-masking properties of solid oral dosage forms (granules, microspheres, pellets, tables and film formulations). Manuscripts have been considered, if the assessment was performed …

… taste-masking technologies applied to solid dosage form manufacturing are summarized. The unique features and principles of taste-masking … also included on the taste masking of thin-…

Conventional adult dosage forms are often not suitable for the paediatric and geriatric populations due to either swallowing difficulties or patient repulsion and a requirement for tailored dosing to individual compliance or physiological needs. Alternative formulations are available; however these often require the incorporation of more complex taste masking techniques. One approach to taste masking is to reduce contact between the bitter Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) and oral cavity taste bud regions. This is achieved by hindering release in the oral cavity, or including competitive inhibition of bitter sensation for example by using flavours or sweeteners. There may also be other sensational complications from the API such as residual burning, reflux or metallic taste sensations to deal with. In vitro dissolution testing is employed to elucidate taste masking capability by quantifying release of the drug in simulated oral cavity conditions. Dissolution testing approaches may also be used to potentially predict or quantify the effect of the taste masking technique on the resultant pharmacokinetic profile. The present review investigates the anatomy and physiology of the oral cavity and current approaches to taste masking. In vitro dissolution methodologies adopted in the evaluation of taste masked formulations are discussed for their relative merits and drawbacks. A vast array of methodologies has been employed, with little agreement between approaches, and a lack of biorelevance. Future directions in dissolution methodology such as TNO Intestinal Model (TIM) and the Artificial Stomach and Duodenum model (ASD) are also discussed.

It is well-known that plenty of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) inherently possess an unpleasant taste, which influences the acceptance of patients, especially children. Therefore, manufacturing taste-masked dosage forms has attracted a lot of attention. This review describes in detail the taste-masking technologies based on the difference in the taste transmission mechanism which is currently available. In particular, the review highlights the application of various methods, with a special focus on how to screen the appropriate masking technology according to the properties of API. Subsequently, we overviewed how to assess taste-masking efficacy, guiding researchers to rationally design taste-masking formulations. Graphical Abstract

… in formulating oral dosage forms where taste is an issue. Developing oral taste masked … investigation may serve for the rational development of oral taste masked dosage forms. …

Orodispersible dosage forms, characterized as quick dissolving and swallowing without water, have recently gained great attention from the pharmaceutical industry, as these forms can satisfy the needs of children, the elderly, and patients suffering from mental illnesses. However, poor taste by thorough exposure of the drugs' dissolution in the oral cavity hinders the effectiveness of the orodispersible dosage forms. To bridge this gap, we put forward three taste-masking strategies with respect to the intensity of time, concentration, and perception. We further investigated the raw material processing, the composition of auxiliary material, formulation techniques, and process control in each strategy and drew conclusions about their effects on taste masking.

Abstract In the past, the administration of medicines for children mainly involved changes to adult dosage forms, such as crushing tablets or opening capsules. However, these methods often led to inconsistent dosing, resulting in under- or overdosing. To address this problem and promote adherence, numerous initiatives, and regulatory frameworks have been developed to develop more child-friendly dosage forms. In recent years, multiparticulate dosage forms such as mini-tablets, pellets, and granules have gained popularity. However, a major challenge that persists is effectively masking the bitter taste of drugs in such formulations. This review therefore provides a brief overview of the current state of the art in taste masking techniques, with a particular focus on taste masking by film coating. Methods for evaluating the effectiveness of taste masking are also discussed and commented on. Another important issue that arises frequently in this area is achieving sufficient dissolution of poorly water-soluble drugs. Since the simultaneous combination of sufficient dissolution and taste masking is particularly challenging, the second objective of this review is to provide a critical summary of studies dealing with multiparticulate formulations that are tackling both of these issues.

… to bitter-tasting drugs. Consequently, in this study, attempts have been made to produce … taste-masked, fast-disintegrating tablet using famotidine as a model drug. Various taste-masking …

Abstract The purpose of this review is to discuss the advantages and limitations of taste sensors in the evaluation of the taste of palatability of different oral dosage forms. First, we consider some ways in which the palatability of various pharmaceutical formulations including orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) are tested using two different taste sensors. Second, we focus on the evaluation of palatability of ODTs. We compare the usefulness of three pieces of apparatus for estimating the disintegration time of ODTs. Finally, we compare the characteristics of the two taste sensors in the evaluation of palatability of various kinds of drug formulations.

… of pharmaceutical development. Currently, there are various approaches to improving the taste of oral dosage forms containing bitter or excessively sour pharmaceutical substances. …

Consumption of dark green vegetables falls short of recommendations, in part, because of unpleasant bitterness. A laboratory-based study of 37 adults was used to determine bitter and hedonic responses to vegetables (asparagus, Brussels sprouts, kale) with bitter masking agents (1.33 M sodium acetate, 10 and 32 mM sodium chloride, and 3.2 mM aspartame) and then characterized by taste phenotype and vegetable liking. In repeated-measures ANOVA, aspartame was most effective at suppressing bitterness and improving hedonic responses for all sampled vegetables. Among the sodium salts, 32 mM sodium chloride decreased bitterness for kale and sodium acetate reduced bitterness across all vegetables with a tendency to increase liking for Brussels sprouts, as release from mixture suppression increased perceived sweetness. Participants were nearly equally divided into three 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) phenotype groups. Those tasting the least PROP bitterness (non-tasters) reported least vegetable bitterness, and the additives produced little change in vegetable liking. Aspartame persisted as the most effective bitter blocker for the PROP tasters (medium, supertasters), improving vegetable liking for the medium tasters but too much sweetness for supertasters. The sodium salts showed some bitter blocking for PROP tasters, particularly sodium acetate, without significant gains in vegetable liking. Via a survey, adults characterized as low vegetable likers reported greater increase in vegetable liking with the maskers than did vegetable likers. These results suggest that bitter masking agents (mainly sweeteners) can suppress bitterness to increase acceptance if they are matched to perceived vegetable bitterness or to self-reported vegetable disliking.

… In contrast, gustatory masking significantly … palatability of the ODT was considered improved. In conclusion, VAS is a useful tool to evaluate the taste of ODTs and that gustatory masking …

… The taste-masking effects of different masking methods on … In the test, volunteers scored the overall palatability using a … and organoleptic taste masking and that the palatability of …

The unpalatability of antituberculosis drugs is often cited as a major cause of non-adherence in children, yet limited quantitative taste assessment data are available. The aim of this research was to quantify the bitterness of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol dihydrochloride using two in vivo (a human taste panel and a rat brief-access taste aversion (BATA) model) and one in vitro (sensor) method. The response of the Insent TS-5000Z electronic tongue was compared to the in vivo drug concentration found to elicit and suppress half the maximum taste response (EC50 in human and IC50 in rats). Using dose-relevant concentrations, an overarching rank order of bitterness was derived (rifampicin > ethambutol > pyrazinamid~isoniazid). In vitro, only ethambutol exhibited a linear response for all sensors/concentrations. Based on the EC50/IC50 generated, a ‘taste index’ was proposed to allow for anticipation of the likelihood of taste issues in practice, taking in account the saturability in the saliva and therapeutic doses; ethambutol and isoniazid were found to be the worst tasting using this measure. The study presents the first quantitative taste analysis of these life-saving drugs and has allowed for a comparison of three methods of obtaining such data. Such information allows the operator to identify and prioritise the drugs requiring taste masking to produce palatable formulations.

… a palatability evaluation to assess the taste-masking efficacy … Taste-masked composites significantly reduced drug release … drug with taste receptors and improved palatability. An …

Abstract The objective of this research is to study the taste masking efficiency of Amberlite IRP88 in sildenafil citrate chewable tablets. Amberlite IPR88 was complexed with sildenafil citrate using the batch method. Formulation with sildenafil citrate/Amberlite IPR88 in a ratio of 2:1 by weight showed higher Drug complexation efficiency and drug-loaded, and furthermore the results from SEM, DSC, XRD, and FT-IR of selected complex indicated that the salt bridge between sildenafil and citrate was replaced by salt bridge between NH groups of sildenafil and the sulfonate group of the resin. Different chewable tablets containing the complex were prepared with various ingredients as well. Then, dissolution tests, in vivo performance assessment as well as palatability evaluation of chewable tablets were performed. The dissolution behaviors, in vivo performances and taste profiles of the prepared chewable tablets with lactose monohydrate, CMC-Na were similar to those of Nipatra Chewable Tablets, which was one of selling sildenafil citrate chewable tablet. Overall, the pH-dependent process of ion exchange by weak cationic resins opens a promising approach to mask the bitter taste of cationic drug for oral fast disintegrating formulation such as sildenafil citrate.

Developing a pediatric oral formulation with an age-appropriate dosage form and taste masking of naturally bitter active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are key challenges for formulation scientists. Several techniques are used for taste masking of bitter APIs to improve formulation palatability; however, not all the techniques are applicable to pediatric dosage forms because of the limitations on the kind and concentration of the excipients that can be used. Hot-melt extrusion (HME) technology is used successfully for taste masking of bitter APIs and overcomes some of the limitations of the existing taste-masking techniques. Likewise, analytical taste assessment is an important quality control parameter evaluated by several in vivo and in vitro methods, such as the human taste panel, electrophysiological methods, electronic sensor, and animal preference tests to aid in selecting a taste-masked formulation. However, the most appropriate in vivo method to assess the taste-masking efficacy of pediatric formulations remains unknown because it is not known to what extent the human taste panel/electronic tongue can predict the palatability in the pediatric patients. The purpose of this study was to develop taste-masked caffeine citrate extrudates via HME and to demonstrate the wide applicability of a single bottle-test rat model to record and compare the volume consumed of the taste-masked solutions to that of the pure API. Thus, this rat model can be considered as a low-cost alternative taste-assessment method to the most commonly used expensive human taste panel/electronic tongue method for pediatric formulations.

Palatability is a critical determinant of acceptability and adherence for oral drug products, especially in pediatric and geriatric populations, yet its evaluation remains fragmented across dosage forms and often disconnected from formulation-development decisions. In this review, we propose Palatability-by-Design (PbD) as a unified framework that treats palatability not as a loosely defined sensory outcome, but as a development variable with identifiable failure modes, measurable sensory critical quality attributes (CQAs), and controllable formulation/process levers. We first define a two-dimensional framework comprising swallowability (oral physical comfort) and palatability (sensory appreciation), and then outline major sensory failure modes that are relevant to oral drug development. Next, we compare subjective and objective evaluation methods using a fit-for-purpose logic, emphasizing decision relevance, surrogate calibration, and the need to anchor instrumental readouts to perception-relevant endpoints. We further integrate these elements into a PbD workflow that links sensory CQAs to risk assessment, formulation/process variables, acceptance criteria, and verification. Finally, we summarize failure-mode-guided optimization strategies, including taste masking and dosage-form modification, and discuss future needs for data standardization, translational calibration, and patient-centred implementation. By aligning sensory science with pharmaceutical quality and control logic, PbD provides a more practical basis for rational, patient-focused oral product development.

Aims The palatability of a new paediatric formulation of valaciclovir was assessed in children and their parents: non‐inferiority of the new paediatric formulation (test formulation) compared to the reference formulation was investigated. Methods In vivo palatability testing was performed in a randomized, two‐period, multicentre, cross‐over study. Children and their parents scored the liking of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation and the reference formulation on a 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS). To support formulation development and palatability testing, electronic tongue measurements were applied. Results The electronic tongue measurement indicated taste‐masking capabilities for three different formulations in the developmental phase. A glycerol‐based formulation was further tested and compared to the reference formulation prepared out of crushed and suspended tablets. The mean difference (95% CI) in VAS scores between both formulations, as indicated by the children (n = 20), was 2.4 (−8.5, 13) mm, in favour of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation. The mean (95% CI) difference in VAS scores indicated by the parents (n = 20) was −0.9 (−12, 9.8) mm. Conclusion The palatability of the new paediatric valaciclovir formulation was considered non‐inferior to the reference formulation prepared out of crushed tablets. We were able to optimize the study design and number of children to be included in the palatability testing by using electronic tongue measurements.

Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) containing propiverine hydrochloride (which is extremely bitter and leaves a feeling of numbness in the mouth) were prepared with a combined use of physical and organoleptic taste masking. Propiverine-loaded masking particles (PLMPs) were prepared with different amounts of gastric-soluble coatings as physical masking. ODTs without organoleptic masking were prepared by mixing each group of PLMPs with Ludiflash®, crospovidone, and magnesium stearate. ODTs with organoleptic masking were also prepared by addition of L-menthol, aspartame, thaumatin, and cinnamon. Fifteen-minute dissolution of propiverine in solutions with pH 1.2 was ≥ 85% for all ODTs, whereas that in pH 6.8 solutions was ≤ 85% and increased with physical masking. A single blind randomized crossover trial was conducted. Ten healthy volunteers were asked to quantify the bitterness, numbness, and overall palatability using a 100-mm visual analog scale (VAS) at the period of disintegration as well as 1 and 5 min later. VAS scores of bitterness, numbness, and overall palatability improved along with increasing amounts of physical masking, and the effects persisted for 5 min. VAS scores for numbness increased over time regardless of the amount of physical masking. Bitterness, numbness, and overall palatability were significantly improved by organoleptic masking if the amount of physical masking was small. Combined use of physical and organoleptic masking is useful for improving palatability of ODTs containing propiverine.

Regulations in the US and EU require and incentivize the development of palatable, age-appropriate medicines for children. However, the taste masking challenge of new drug actives is generally unknown, making development of palatable drug products extremely difficult. To develop palatable drug products, formulation scientists first need to determine if the drug active is bitter, has an offensive aroma (malodor) or is burning as each perception requires a different formulation approach. This retrospective compilation of results of 155 taste assessment studies reveals diversity in aversive flavor attributes of active ingredients. Bitterness was the primary taste masking challenge for 65% of the drug actives. Aversive aromas (e.g., solvent, fishy, oxidized oil) were the second most common challenge, impacting 8% of drug actives. Approximately 5% had trigeminal irritation, and a smaller subset were sour or salty (4%). None were found to be sweet. Of note, 14% of drug actives were “bland” in flavor, with no measured aversive attributes. Complicating development, most actives (>90%) were found to have multiple aversive flavor attributes. These findings highlight the need to determine the aversive attributes early in clinical development (Phase 1) to guide dosage form selection and formulation design.

Norvir® (ritonavir) is a Biopharmaceutical Classification System Class IV compound with poor solubility in water (~5 µg/mL) and limited oral bioavailability. Early stage development efforts were focused on an oral solution (OS) which provided reasonable bioavailability but exhibited taste-masking challenges and required the use of solvents with potential pediatric toxicity. Norvir® oral powder, 100 mg (NOP) was developed to replace OS. The objective of this study is to provide an overview of the development of NOP and palatability assessment strategy. Palatability of NOP was assessed using the flavor profile method: (1) As an aqueous suspension dose/response and (2) evaluation with foods. The dose/response sensory analysis indicated that NOP has strong intensity bitterness and burnt aromatics (3 on the 0–3 flavor profile scale) at the clinical dose (100 mg/10 mL) and the recognition threshold was determined to be 0.3 mg/10 mL. To improve palatability, 100 mg/10 mL NOP aqueous suspension was evaluated with foods. Consuming foods high in fat and/or sugar content after NOP administration successfully reduced bitterness to a 1.5 intensity. In summary, NOP provides dose flexibility, enhanced stability, eliminated solvents, and maintains consistent bioavailability, with reduced bitterness and improved palatability via administration with common food products.

… bitter taste of Epi would affect its acceptability among patients. In this study, we aimed to improve the palatability of a gummy drug containing Epi (Epi-G) via organoleptic masking. Epi-G …

… that distinguish bitter formulations or quantify changes after taste masking, but the relationship between sensor output and human acceptability remains dependent on product type, …

… Therefore any information about paediatric dosage form(s) of choice, whose selection will be influenced by taste masking potential and palatability, is likely to be limited in the PIP. …

… to palatability. However, based on results of this review, palatability is often assessed in … After bioavailability testing in adult subjects, the taste-masked formulation was evaluated in …

The palatability of pediatric pharmaceutical products plays a crucial role of influencing medication compliance. Rejection of unpalatable medications can potentially lead to treatment failure which can have immediate and delayed consequences. With advances in both the food and pharmaceutical industries, the systematic assessment of palatability has gained importance. Various methods such as visual analogue scales, facial hedonic scales, and facial recognition software, have been employed to assess palatability. While proven to be useful, these methods have significant limitations and may not be workable for young children. Despite these advancements, a universally accepted “gold standard” for assessing pediatric mediation palatability, recognized by drug regulatory agencies, is yet to be established.

… (emulsions) and adding excipients (flavor agents) and bitter blockers, and the most successful … , for some, can contribute flavor qualities to medicine formulations that are less palatable …

Bitter phytochemicals, including alkaloids, terpenoids, and bitter glycosides, are abundant in medicinal food plants and exhibit well-documented anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and other bioactivities relevant to human health. However, the inherent bitterness of these compounds presents a significant sensory barrier to patient compliance and limits their application as functional food ingredients. This review provides a comprehensive and interdisciplinary synthesis of current knowledge on bitter compounds in medicinal food plants, integrating perspectives from phytochemistry, molecular pharmacology, and sensory science. We summarize the major chemical classes of bitter phytochemicals, critically evaluate methods for their isolation and identification—from classical sensory-guided fractionation to modern computational approaches such as molecular docking and metabolomics—and analyze three principal strategies for bitterness regulation: physical removal, biological transformation, and sensory modulation (including molecular inclusion and TAS2R receptor blocking). We also briefly touch upon the extraoral expression of TAS2Rs and there suggested links to local immune responses and metabolic regulation, noting that this may be relevant to the concept of “taste–bioactivity homology.” The review further highlights ongoing challenges, such as the identification of unknown bitter compounds and the lack of standardized sensory evaluation systems, and outlines possible directions for improving bitterness analysis and regulation in medicinal food plants.

Background Many active pharmaceutical ingredients taste bitter and thus are aversive to children, as well as many adults. Encapsulation of the medicine in pill or tablet form, an effective method for adults to avoid the unpleasant taste, is problematic for children. Many children cannot or will not swallow solid dosage forms. Objective This review highlights basic principles of gustatory function, with a special focus on the science of bitter taste, derived from studies of animal models and human psychophysics. We focus on the set of genes that encode the proteins that function as bitter receptors, as well as the cascade of events that lead to multidimensional aspects of taste function, highlighting the role that animal models played in these discoveries. We also summarize psychophysical approaches to studying bitter taste in adult and pediatric populations, highlighting evidence of the similarities and differences in bitter taste perception and acceptance between adults and children and drawing on useful strategies from animal models. Results Medicine often tastes bitter, and because children are more bitter sensitive than are adults, this creates problems with compliance. Bitter arises from stimulating receptors in taste receptor cells, with signals processed in the taste bud and relayed to the brain. However, there are many gaps in our understanding of how best to measure bitterness and how to ameliorate it, including whether it is more efficiently addressed at the level of receptor and sensory signaling, at the level of central processing, or by masking techniques. All methods of measuring responsiveness to bitter ligands—in animal models, through human psychophysics, or with “electronic tongues”—have limitations. Conclusions Better-tasting medications may enhance pediatric adherence to drug therapy. Sugars, acids, salt, and other substances reduce perceived bitterness of several pharmaceuticals, and although pleasant flavorings may help children consume some medicines, they often are not effective in suppressing bitter tastes. Further development of psychophysical tools for children will help us better understand their sensory worlds. Multiple testing strategies will help us refine methods to assess acceptance and compliance/adherence by various pediatric populations. Research involving animal models, in which the gustatory system can be more invasively manipulated, can elucidate mechanisms, ultimately providing potential targets. These approaches, combined with new technologies and guided by findings from clinical studies, will potentially lead to effective ways to enhance drug acceptance and compliance in pediatric populations.

… -enhancing and bitterness-masking agents are also being … as safe flavoring substances list provided by the Flavor and … US FDA, when used as flavoring agents or surfactants (FDA 21 …

In recent decades, taste sensors have been increasingly utilized to assess the taste of oral medicines, particularly focusing on bitterness, a major obstacle to patient acceptance and adherence. This objective and safe method holds promise for enhancing the development of patient-friendly medicines in pharmaceutical companies. This review article introduces its application in measuring the intensity of bitterness in medicine, confirming the achievement of taste masking, distinguishing taste differences between branded and generic medicines, and identifying substances to suppress bitterness in target medicines. Another application of the sensor is to predict a significant increase in bitterness when medicine is taken with certain foods/beverages or concomitant medication. Additionally, to verify the sensor’s predictability, a significant correlation has been demonstrated between the output of a bitter-sensitive sensor designed for drug bitterness (BT0) and the bitterness responses of the human taste receptor hT2R14 from BitterDB (huji.ac.il). As a recent advancement, a novel taste sensor equipped with lipid/polymer membranes modified by 3-Br-2,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,6-DHBA), based on the concept of allostery, is introduced. This sensor successfully predicts the bitterness of non-charged pharmaceuticals with xanthine skeletons, such as caffeine or related compounds. Finally, the future prospects of taste sensors are discussed.

… E bitterness and to predict the masking effects of sweetening and/or flavoring non-medicinal … Six standard active pharmaceutical ingredients were used to build and validate a bitterness …

Background Traditional Chinese medicine decoction (TCMD) is an oral liquid made by decocting crude medicinal compounds with water. It has complex compositions and diverse odor and taste, most of which have an unacceptable level of bitterness which seriously affects patients' medication compliance. To solve this problem, a variety of taste-masking pathways and different types of taste-masking excipients were combined, using the application of coffee-mate to mask the bitterness of coffee as an existing example. Three composite taste-masking adjuvants were developed to improve the taste of TCMD, referred to as the Chinese Medicine Decoction-Mate (CMD-M). However, whether CMD-M has a good taste-masking effect and whether it affects the chemical compositions and pharmacological effects of the medicine remain unclear. Method The commonly used pediatric medicine Qingre Huazhi Decoction (QRHZD) and the personalized decoctions used in clinical practices were used as the masking research carriers. The taste-masking effect of CMD-M on QRHZD was evaluated by both healthy volunteers and an electronic tongue, and the personalized decoctions were evaluated by clinical subjects. The changes of chemical components of QRHZD before and after taste-masking were evaluated by HPLC. The changes in anti-inflammatory effects were evaluated by establishing mice as an acute inflammatory model. Results The taste-masking effect evaluation results showed that the bitterness of QRHZD was significantly reduced after adding CMD-M. There was no significant difference in the relative peak areas change rate and total peak areas ratio of common peaks of QRHZD before and after taste-masking (P > 0.05), shown by HPLC analysis. The inhibitory rates of QRHZD on ear swelling in mice before and after taste-masking also showed no significant difference (P > 0.05). Conclusions CMD-M can effectively mask the bitterness of decoctions while bringing no significant difference overall in chemical compositions and pharmacological effects before and after QRHZD masking.

Abstract Doxilamine orodispersible tablets were developed with considerable increase in drug release as compared to marketed formulations, seven formulations were developed and studied. The difference in drug release values was found to be 100.45 ± 1.89 and 56.47 ± 1.89, respectively. To prevent bitter taste and unacceptable odour of the drug, the drug was taste masked with weak cation exchange resins like Indion 234, Indion 204 and Indion 414. The drug was characterized according to different compendial methods, on the basis of identification by UV spectroscopy, pH, organoleptic properties and other tests. Among the three resins, one was selected for further studies i.e., Indion 234, because of high drug loading capacity. Drug–resin complex was prepared using batch method and effect of various processing parameters viz. drug–resin ratio, pH, temperature and drug concentration was studied to optimize the loading conditions. Maximum loading was obtained at drug–resin ratio 1:2, pH 5, temperature 50 °C and drug concentration 4 mg/ml. A successful taste masking of resinate was confirmed by time intensity method and also by taking drug release in 0.01 N hydrochloric acid and in simulated salivary fluid. The values of pre-compression parameters evaluated, were within prescribed limits and indicated good free flowing properties. The data obtained of post-compression parameters such as weight variation, hardness, friability, wetting time, water absorption ratio, content uniformity, disintegration time and dissolution and was found superior over conventional formulation. The F5 batch with disintegration time 25.24 ± 0.75 and dissolution 100.46% ± 3.78 was selected as optimized formulation. This was compared with conventional marketed formulation and was found superior. Batch F5 was also subjected to stability studies for three months and was tested for its disintegration time, drug contents and dissolution behaviour monthly. It was observed that the contents of the tablets remained the same. By an appropriate selection and combination of excipients it was possible to obtain orodispersible and taste masked tablets.

Graphical abstract Figure. No caption available. ABSTRACT Taste masking is important for some unpleasant tasting bioactives in oral dosage forms. Among many methods available for taste‐masking, use of ion‐exchange resin (IER) holds promise. IER combined with hot melt extrusion (HME) may offer additional advantages over solvent methods. IER provides taste masking by complexing with the drug ions and preventing drug dissolution in the mouth. Drug‐IER complexation approaches described in literatures are mainly based either on batch processing or column eluting. These methods of drug‐IER complexation have obvious limitations such as high solvent volume requirements, multiprocessing steps and extended processing time. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop a single‐step, solvent‐free, continuous HME process for complexation of drug‐IER. The screening study evaluated drug to IER ratio, types of IER and drug complexation methods. In the screening study, a potassium salt of a weakly acidic carboxylate‐based cationic IER was found suitable for the HME method. Thereafter, optimization study was conducted by varying HME process parameters such as screw speed, extrusion temperature and drug to IER ratio. It was observed that extrusion temperature and drug to IER ratio are imperative in drug‐IER complexation through HME. In summary, this study has established the feasibility of a continuous complexation method for drug to IER using HME for taste masking.

ABSTRACT Orodispersible film (ODF) is a widely used oral solid dosage form. However, it’s not suitable for drugs with short half‐life, bitterness and strong hygroscopicity. The present study aims to develop a sustained release and stable betahistine hydrochloride ODF without bitterness. Drug–resin complex (IRDC) was prepared using batch method. In vitro dissolution experiment, e‐Tongue and hygroscopicity experiment were conducted to compare the differences between ODF containing IRDC and ODF containing betahistine hydrochloride. Drug release kinetics showed that the diffusion of drug in IRDC was the rate‐limiting step of drug release. DSC and FT‐IR were conducted to explore the molecular mechanism of taste masking and hygroscopicity reduction. It turned out that taste masking was attributed to the ionic interaction between drug and resin and the slow dissolution of drug from IRDC. The site where drug form hydrogen bonds with water molecular was occupied by drug–resin interaction leading to hygroscopicity reduction. In summary, in this study we not only developed a betahistine hydrochloride ODF with good properties but also explored the effect of drug–resin interaction on sustained release, taste masking and hygroscopicity reduction.

Abstract The aim of the study was to taste mask ciprofloxacin (CP) by using ion-exchange resins (IERs) followed by sustain release of CP by forming interpenetrating polymer network (IPN). IERs based on the copolymerization of acrylic acid with different cross linking agents were synthesised. Drug-resin complexes (DRCs) with three different ratios of drug to IERs (1:1, 1:2, 1:4) were prepared & evaluated for taste masking by following in vivo and in vitro methods. Human volunteers graded ADC 1:4, acrylic acid-divinyl benzene (ADC-3) resin as tasteless. Characterization studies such as FTIR, SEM, DSC, P-XRD differentiated ADC 1:4, from physical mixture (PM 1:4) and confirmed the formation of complex. In vitro drug release of ADC 1:4 showed complete release of CP within 60 min at simulated gastric fluid (SGF) i.e. pH 1.2. IPN beads were prepared with ADC 1:4 by using sodium alginate (AL) and sodium alginate-chitosan (AL-CS) for sustain release of CP at SGF pH and followed by simulated intestinal fluid (SIF i.e. pH 7.4). FTIR spectra confirmed the formation of IPN beads. The release of CP was sustain at SGF pH ( 75%). The kinetic model of IPN beads showed the release of CP was non-Fickian diffusion type.

… Although the taste-masking of bitter drug using ion exchange resin has been recognized, the usefulness of IRDC for in vitro and in vivo taste masking was not fully understood. …

… The ion exchange mechanism was the prime cause of drug release. By virtue of ion exchange resins, the benefits achieved of taste masking and better acceptance by patients might …

Atomoxetine hydrochloride (ATH) is a first-line medication used to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children. However, it poses challenges such as a bitter taste and difficulties in dose adjustment. While once-daily administration may result in excessive drug exposure, twice-daily dosing improves plasma drug concentration stability but can reduce patient compliance, especially in school-aged children. To address these challenges, a novel strategy was proposed that involves encapsulating ATH into ion exchange resins (IERs) (referred to as ATH@IER). The pH-responsive release of ATH from the ATH@IER exhibited a limited release rate in neutral conditions, effectively masking the bitter taste, which was evaluated through electronic tongue analysis. The cation-responsive release of ATH from the ATH@IER demonstrated immediate-release (IR) property, which was combined with Eudragit® RS100 coated ATH@IER (ATH@MC) to establish a biphasic release system. ATH orally disintegrating tablets (ATH ODT) were manufactured using a composition of ATH@IER and ATH@MC (40:60, w/w), along with other excipients. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that a single dose of ATH ODT produced a bimodal plasma concentration, resulting in a two-fold decrease in peak concentration (Cmax) while maintaining an unchanged area under the drug concentration–time curve (AUC0-t) compared to the commercial ATH oral solution administered once. Notably, the plasma drug concentration of ATH ODT remained steadier than that of the commercial product when administered twice. In conclusion, ATH ODT represents a promising formulation that effectively masks bitter taste and provides biphasic release for the treatment of ADHD.

Taste masking is critical to improving the compliance of pediatric oral dosage forms. However, it is challenging for extremely bitter lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX) with a long half-life and given in large dose. The present study aims to develop an immediate-release, taste-masked lisdexamfetamine chewable tablet. Lisdexamfetamine-resin complexes (LRCs) were prepared using the batch method. The molecular mechanism of taste masking was explored by PXRD, PLM, STA, and FT-IR. The results showed that taste masking was attributed to the ionic interaction between drug and the resin. The ion exchange process conformed to first-order kinetics. The rate-limiting step of drug release was the diffusion of ions inside the particles, and the concentration of H+ was the key factor for immediate release. The masking efficiency of the prepared LRCs in saliva exceeded 96%, and the drug could be completely released within 15 min in aqueous HCl (pH 1.2). Furthermore, the SeDeM expert system was used for the first time to comprehensively study the powder properties of LRCs and to quickly visualize their defects (compressibility, lubricity/stability, and lubricity/dosage). The selection of excipients was targeted rather than traditional screening, thus obtaining a robust chewable tablet formulation suitable for direct compression. Finally, the difference between chewable tablets containing LRCs and chewable tablets containing lisdexamfetamine dimesylate was compared by in vitro dissolution test, electronic tongue, and disintegration test. In conclusion, an immediate-released, child-friendly lisdexamfetamine chewable tablets without bitterness was successfully developed by the QbD approach, using the SeDeM system, which may help in further development of chewable tablets.

… of Chlorpheniramine maleate using cation exchange resins. Materials and methods: Different cation exchange resins were used for taste masking. The drug resin complexes (DRC) …

… onto the weak cation exchange resins of carboxylic acid … drugs and weak cation exchange resin does not break at pH … Use of cation exchange resins to optimize the taste masking …

… Taste masking by ion exchange resin and its new applications: a review. Int J Pharm Sci … of orodispersible tablet of taste masked doxylamine succinate using ion exchange resin. J King …

Abstract The objective of the study was to mask the unpleasant taste of captopril (CPT). Taste masking was achieved by complexation of CPT with a basic ion exchange resin, Dowex® 66, using the batch method. Dowex® 66 was used for the adsorption of CPT, and physical and chemical parameters of the CPT resinates complex were evaluated. A central composite design was used to generate the experiments for the manufacture of resinates using different process and formulation variables. In vitro dissolution studies were performed for 2 h in 0.01N HCl (pH 1.6) using USP Apparatus I. The compatibility of CPT and the resin was evaluated by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The resinates were evaluated for micromeritic properties and further characterised using FTIR, DSC, and PXRD. Response surface methodology was used to determine the significance of input variables on the CPT content and release. The CPT resin ratio was found to have a significant impact on content of the resinates and on CPT release. The formulations were also studied for taste masking ability by means of an electronic gustatory system – electronic tongue.

The purpose of this study was to mask the bitter taste of nizatidine (NZD) using cation-exchange resins. Amberlite IRP-69 and Dowex-50 containing cross-linked polystyrene backbones were used. The drug resin complexes were prepared by batch process using drug: resin ratios of 1:1, 1:3, and 1:5. The optimum drug: resin ratio and the time required for maximum percentage drug loading into the complexes were determined. The selected drug-resin complexes were evaluated for morphology, drug release, and taste. The NZD-Dowex complex was obtained at a drug: resin ratio of 1:5 using a stirring time of 1 h in order to get 100% loading of NZD. The NZD-Dowex complex had a spherical shape and smooth texture similar to Dowex resin. The NZD-Dowex complex with a ratio of 1:5 showed that in vitro drug release of 4.27% at 5 min in simulated salivary fluid of pH 6.8 and 99.67% at 1 h in simulated gastric fluid of pH 1.2. NZD’s bitter taste was effectively masked when it formed a complex with Dowex at a ratio of 1:5. This was proved by an electronic tongue and human test panel.

Abstract In the present work, an attempt has been made to mask the bitter taste of Levetiracetam using various ion-exchange resins such as Amberlite IRP69 and Duolite AP143. The physicochemical characteristics of the drug–resin complex in the solid state were studied. FT-IR studies revealed that there is no interaction between drug and resin. The DSC and XRD studies proved that the drug is in amorphous nature. Using the same concentration of resins, Xanthan gum as suspending agent in a liquid dosage form for pediatric use was formulated. Evaluation parameters such as drug content, sedimentation volume, re-dispersibility and viscosity of the prepared suspension were found to be satisfactory. The higher Zeta potential value indicates the stability of the suspension. Suspension prepared with Duolite AP 143 efficiently masks the bitter taste of Levetiracetam compared to Amberlite IRP69. From the in vitro drug release, a formulation with 1:2 ratios of resin has shown the maximum release at the end of 90 minutes. The sustained effect is due to one of the properties of the resin. The release profile follows zero order kinetics. The results obtained in this work show that drug–resin complexes effectively masked the bitter taste of Levetiracetam while liquid formulation provides an easier way to administer and to overcome problems with noncompliance of pediatrics.

… The objective of this study is to use weak acid cation exchange resin to mask the taste and eliminate the teeth staining problems of ferrous sulfate liquid preparations for use in pediatrics…

… powder coating … taste masking and moisture protective film coatings on tablets using Eudragit ® E PO. The use of pH dependent polymers offers a different approach to taste masking …

… The ability of a polymeric coating to mask the unpleasant taste and/or odor of a drug depends on various factors, such as its permeability for the drug and water, mechanical stability, …

… Coating processes are preferably used for taste masking of … include liquid melt or powder coating with lipids, waxes and … and taste masking polymers used in film coating processes …

… a very bitter taste, making the formulation of a palatable product difficult. Taste masking with … Further, such polymers were found useful in taste protection of bitter drugs (5). The resins …

Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) improve patient adherence as they can easily disintegrate in the presence of small amount of saliva. However, the bitter taste of the active pharmaceutical ingredient in ODTs reduces patient compliance. The present study aimed to formulate bitter taste-masked ODTs containing high-dose of memantine hydrochloride (MTN) to achieve a balance between bitterness suppression and dissolution rate or disintegration time and mechanical strength. The high MTN-loaded granules were prepared using a fluidized bed granulator. Taste-masking granules coated with the selected polymer were prepared using the layering technique. Three ODTs, composed of granules coated with different polymers, were prepared. The ODT prepared using granules coated with enteric polymers showed the fastest collapse time (>20 s). Dissolution rates of ODTs composed of enteric polymers were reduced by 5 min compared with ODTs composed of non-coated or coated with water-insoluble polymer granules. X-ray computed tomography analysis revealed that low density distribution of ODTs with enteric polymer granules may result in faster disintegration time. Although ODT prepared using enteric polymers had the fastest collapse time, its change in membrane potential caused by adsorption (CPA), corresponding to aftertaste, was the lowest among formulations. This CPA value was lower than the bitterness threshold.

… or reduce interactions with taste buds [Citation13]. This article reviews polymers used for taste-masking applications and how these materials are used to mask the taste of bitter drugs …

One of the important parameters in the case of dosage form is taste. Most of the drugs available in oral dosage form have an unpleasant taste which leads to patient incompliance and affects the success ratio of products in market. Geriatric and paediatric patients suffer more with a bitter taste of medicines. According to the studies reported, it is found that 50% of the population have problem of swallowing tablets, especially the pediatric and geriatric population. Masking the taste of bitter drugs has become necessary in the pharmaceutical field and increasing interest of researchers to develop various methods for masking the bitter taste of drugs. Five major tastes that are felt by our tongue are salt, sour, sweet, bitter and umami. When the drug dissolves with saliva, drug molecules interact with taste receptors present on the tongue and give taste sensations. Although many solid oral dosage forms like pills, tablets have additional advantage of masking and encapsulation of bitter taste drugs but they might not be effective for children because they may or may not swallow pills or tablets. There are various other methods that masks the bitter taste of drugs such as addition of sweeteners and flavouring agents, granulation, coating, inclusion complexes, extrusion method, ion-exchange resins etc, discussed in first section of article. The second part of this article consists of various nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems that were fabricated by researchers to mask the bitter taste of drugs. A brief of recent literature on various nanocarriers that were fabricated or developed for taste masking has been discussed in this part. A better understanding of these methods will help researchers and pharmaceutical industries to develop novel drug delivery systems with improved taste masking properties.

Taste is the most crucial organoleptic parameter affecting patient compliance in the case of drugs with poor palatability. Taste masking is a major challenge for the development of orally ingested active pharmaceutical constituents in the pharmaceutical industry. Numerous conventional taste-masking techniques have been extensively studied. In parallel, affecting the drug solubility or release is a major concern of conventional taste-masking techniques. Recently, many nanocarrier systems have been introduced, claiming the advantage of effective taste masking without affecting either the drug solubility or its release. In this review, we will present new techniques for taste masking, including taste-masking techniques utilizing nanocarrier systems such as liposomes, polymeric and solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, submicron lipid emulsions, and nanogels. We will chiefly highlight the composition of these systems and their applications in designing oral therapeutic delivery systems successful in masking the taste of bitter molecules.

… used and currently raising taste masking techniques, namely, complexation, encapsulation and hot melting and it excluded the conventional methods such as coating, granulation, and …

Taste is of five basic types, namely, sourness, saltiness, sweetness, bitterness and umami. In this review, we focus on a potentiometric taste sensor that we developed and fabricated using lipid polymer membranes. The taste sensor can measure the taste perceived by humans and is called an electronic tongue with global selectivity, which is the property to discriminate taste qualities and quantify them without discriminating each chemical substance. This property is similar to the gustatory system; hence, the taste sensor is a type of biomimetic device. In this paper, we first explain the sensing mechanism of the taste sensor, its application to beer evaluation and the measurement mechanism. Second, results recently obtained are introduced; i.e. , the application of the senor to high-potency sweeteners and the improvement of the bitterness sensor are explained. Last, quantification of the bitterness-masking effect of high-potency sweeteners is explained using a regression analysis based on both the outputs of bitterness and sweetness sensors. The taste sensor provides a biomimetic method different from conventional analytical methods.

… can be used in electronic tongue, such as electrochemical … Unlike the other analytical methods, electronic tongues only … tongue is emerging and has been used for taste evaluation. …

… Data evaluation methods used for electronic tongue measurements of pharmaceutical samples are listed in Table 2, Table 3, Table 4 together with the type of drug substance, excipients …

Electronic tongue systems are traditionally used to analyse: food products, water samples and taste masking technologies for pharmaceuticals. In principle, their applications are almost limitless, as they are able to almost completely reduce the impact of interferents and can be applied to distinguish samples of extreme complexity as for example broths from different stages of fermentation. Nevertheless, their applications outside the three principal sample types are, in comparison, rather scarce. In this review, we would like to take a closer look on what are real capabilities of electronic tongue systems, what can be achieved using mixed sensor arrays and by introduction of biosensors or molecularly imprinted polymers in the matrix. We will discuss future directions both in the sense of applications as well as system development in the ever-growing trend of low cost analysis.

Taste is an important organoleptic property governing acceptance of products for administration through mouth. But majority of drugs available are bitter in taste. For patient acceptability and compliance, bitter taste drugs are masked by adding several flavoring agents. Thus, taste assessment is one important quality control parameter for evaluating taste-masked formulations. The primary method for the taste measurement of drug substances and formulations is by human panelists. The use of sensory panelists is very difficult and problematic in industry and this is due to the potential toxicity of drugs and subjectivity of taste panelists, problems in recruiting taste panelists, motivation and panel maintenance are significantly difficult when working with unpleasant products. Furthermore, Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-unapproved molecules cannot be tested. Therefore, analytical taste-sensing multichannel sensory system called as electronic tongue (e-tongue or artificial tongue) which can assess taste have been replacing the sensory panelists. Thus, e-tongue includes benefits like reducing reliance on human panel. The present review focuses on the electrochemical concepts in instrumentation, performance qualification of E-tongue, and applications in various fields.

… taste panelists. In the present review we are presenting different aspect of electronic tongue. … review article also discussed some useful patents and instrument with respect to E-tongue. …

… To further evaluate the potential utility of the electronic tongue in drug product … human taste panel and electronic tongue data. Multiple formulas of the same bitter drug were evaluated …

… The purpose of this research was to demonstrate that a sensory instrument for taste (e-Tongue) could be used to evaluate the bitterness of berberine hydrochloride from Chinese …

Abstract The palatability of medications is an essential factor for children’s adherence to drug treatment. Several methods for drug taste assessment have been developed. The aim of this review is to explore the literature reports of the main methods for the evaluation of medicines taste, named electronic tongue (e-tongue, in vitro) and human sensory panel. A systematic search was performed up to March 2020 and a total of 88 articles were selected. The e-tongue (57.5%) has been more frequently described than the sensory panel (10.3%), while some articles (32.2%) used both techniques. 74.7% of the articles mentioned ‘pediatric’, ‘paediatric’ or ‘children’ in the text, but only 19.5% developed formulations targeting pediatric audience and sensory testing in children is rarely seen. The e-tongue has predominance of use in the taste evaluation of pediatric medicines probably since it is fast, easy to perform and risk free, besides presenting less imprecise data and no fatigue. The human panel is more realistic, despite its intrinsic variability. In this sense, it is proposed the use of e-tongue as a fast way to select the most promising sample(s) and, after that, the sensory panel should be applied in order to confirm the taste masking.