宽温度、高灵敏度集成式砷化镓霍尔电流传感器的研究

Hall current sensors suffer from severe measurement inaccuracies over a wide temperature range due to sensitivity drift, offset variation, and nonlinear errors. To address these issues, a gallium arsenide (GaAs) Hall current sensor with integrated current conductor incorporating a wide-temperature digital calibration method is proposed and verified in this article. First, a 3-D electromagnetic-thermal coupled model of a GaAs Hall element is established to accurately simulate temperature-dependent characteristics. Based on the modeling and experimental validation, an integrated current conductor packaging structure is optimized through structural simulation, eliminating bulky magnetic concentrators and ensuring stable flux concentration from −40 °C to 150 °C. Furthermore, a signal conditioning chip is developed with integrated digital calibration, including a rotating current module for offset suppression, a threestage programmable amplifier for dynamic sensitivity adjustment, and a polynomial-based temperature compensation algorithm for correcting both sensitivity and static voltage drift. The experimental results confirm that the proposed calibration method effectively suppresses temperature-induced errors, maintaining the sensor error within ±0.3% of the full scale (FS) (±20 A) across −40 °C to 150 °C. Compared with conventional analog or narrow-range calibration methods, the proposed approach achieves higher accuracy, enhanced reliability, and extended applicability under extreme temperature conditions, making it suitable for high-precision current sensing in industrial and automotive applications.

A Hall-effect (magnetic) sensor detects small AC or DC magnetic fields. A new design of a Hall-effect sensor has increased sensitivity to magnetic fields, even before amplification, allowing the sensor to be used for new applications, such as small-motion detection, trace substance detection, and other novel medical devices. In the case of this new sensor, small physical size enhances or enables performance in certain physical applications. The packaging objective, as with most integrated circuits, was to assemble the Hall-effect sensor chip in the smallest, high-volume package available without sacrificing reliability and performance at the lowest total cost solution. Major cost factors were die prep, package type/materials, assembly labor and overhead, final test, and packing methods. More precisely, the challenge was to specify and qualify one or more popular 4-lead to 6-lead “standard” plastic packages for a small ~250 μm x ~250 μm GaAs die that could be assembled and tested by multiple contract manufacturers in high volumes for a “die-free” cost of less than 2 cents each. The desire was to specify a RoHS-compliant package that met Level 1 moisture sensitivity without severely impacting the cost of subsequent board assembly. An overriding constraint was to select a package that contained no ferro-magnetic materials. The search for an appropriate package and assembly facility, the issues encountered during assembly of qualification lots, the assembly process control data, and the chip/package reliability test results are described in detail. The individual constraints on the packaging, in and of themselves, are achievable with today’s technologies, however in combination they limited the choice of packages, direct materials, and suppliers. The trade-offs made, the merits and disadvantages of each approach, and the ultimate decisions and results are described. Details of the final package construction, die preparation issues, the assembly qualification build, and environmental reliability test results are revealed. A total cost analysis of wafer fab and sort, die prep, assembly and final test, and packing is presented. Initial work in developing this new Hall-effect sensor showed that the die size could be shrunk significantly, thereby reducing the current path width to as little as 0.5 μm without sacrificing performance. Thus, the size of the future sensor chip designs will be limited only by the minimum contact (wire bond or flip chip) pad sizes and their minimum pitch dictated by assembly design rules. The drive for ever smaller Hall-effect sensors will push the limits of conventional small-scale package manufacturing and may result in wafer-level packages if the cost targets can be met. Ongoing research and development is focused on low-cost, flip chip implementations in which the cost of die rework vs. the cost of sub-assembly scrap will be considered.

This paper presents a fully integrated Hall sensor Analog Front End with an analog, closed loop, selfcalibration circuit, able to detect current values in the range of $\pm 120 \mathrm{~A}$ with a power supply voltage of 5 V. This calibration is performed using an integrated coil where a reference current flows. The proposed system can separate and extract the magnetic field generated by the reference current, compensating the sensitivity variation of the Hall sensors in temperature and mechanical stress, using an analog closed loop. Thanks to this fully integrated analog technique, experiments on fabricated chips have reported very low sensitivity drifts, with measured values of $100 \mathrm{ppm} /{ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ and $\pm 0.3 \%$ variations over temperature and mechanical stress, respectively.

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Typical e-bikes magnetoelastic torque sensors employ bulky fluxgate magnetometers to resolve few $\mu \mathbf{T} / \mathbf{N m}$. Instead, we propose the use of a miniaturized gradiometric arrangement of GaAs Hall plates sensitive to the radial magnetic field and a design approach that reduces the impact of axial misalignment. The proposed architecture provides comparable performance to commercial solutions, with reduced sizing and simplified magnetization requirements. Experiments conducted on a prototype with a full-scale (FS) upper limit of 200 Nm show a resolution of $7 \text{mNm}/\sqrt{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}$ with a combined standard error of 1.85%FS.

Gallium Nitride (GaN) hetero-structure on Silicon (Si) and Silicon Carbide (SiC) substrates as well as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) based Hall sensor are developed, evaluated and compared. Each sensor characterization is performed at various magnetic fields up to 2 T over a temperature range of 300 K to 500 K in step size of 25 K. Hall voltages of GaN on Si, GaN on SiC and GaAs sample are measured for magnetic fields ranging from 0.2 T to 2 T at different temperatures. GaAs being a low energy band gap material, its sensitivity drastically drops down from 4300V/AT at low temperatures to around 2500V/AT beyond room temperature. Contrarily, GaN based Hall sensors do not show much variation at high temperatures. The current relative sensitivity obtained experimentally is found to be around 40–50 V/A/T for GaN devices over the temperature range considered; for GaAs device, it is more than 500 V/AT at high temperatures. A very small variation of less than 5% in sensitivity is noted in GaN on Si and GaN on SiC substrates. Also, the absolute temperature co-efficient of GaN devices is 0.03%/K and 0.02%/K for Si and SiC substrates respectively whereas for GaAs devices is 0.23%/K.

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The magnetic sensitivity of voltage controlled Hall sensors changes up to $\pm 40\%$ in the temperature range from −40°C to 125°C, resulting in large measurement errors. To track the temperature induced sensitivity variation, state of the art systems use additional temperature sensors and/or on-chip calibration coils. This paper presents a method to track the magnetic sensitivity temperature drift of a Hall sensor based on its own resistance. The proposed method results in a tracking accuracy of $\pm$ 6% for Bx, By and $\pm$ 3% for Bz in the temperature range from −40°C to 125°C. Providing a magnetic sensitivity to bias current transfer function further enhances the tracking accuracy to $\leq 1\%$. It requires no additional integrated coils or temperature sensors.

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High-frequency wideband Hall effect sensors can measure currents in power electronics that operate at higher frequencies (in the Megahertz range). We experimentally investigated the frequency limit of Hall effect sensor designs based on a 2-D electron gas (2DEG) gallium arsenide/aluminum gallium arsenide (GaAs/AlGaAs) heterostructures. For the first time, an experimental investigation into the frequency limit of a 2DEG Hall effect sensor is shown. The frequency limit is measured and compared for four GaAs/AlGaAs Hall effect sensor designs, where the Ohmic contact length (contact geometry) is varied across the four devices. By varying the geometry, the tradeoff in sensitivity and frequency limit is explored, and the underlying causes of the frequency limit from the resistance and capacitance is investigated. Current spinning, the traditional method to remove offset noise, imposes a practical frequency limit on Hall effect sensors. The actual frequency limit, without current spinning, is an order of magnitude higher. An experimental frequency limit of 46 MHz is measured for 2DEG GaAs/AlGaAs sensor.

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This study presents a calibration methodology for 3D Hall-Effect magnetic field sensors using a custom-built 3D Helmholtz coil system to generate a highly uniform reference magnetic field. The proposed method employs polynomial fitting to correct non-linearities in the sensor response and compensates for temperature-induced drift using a magnitude-only correction approach. Experimental results demonstrate significant improvements in measurement accuracy, with the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) reduced by up to 96% across all axes. While the linearity of the sensor outputs remained consistently high before and after calibration, the calibration process effectively reduced both systematic and random errors. Additionally, temperature drift errors were effectively minimized, resulting in a sTABLE output over the tested temperature range of 17 °C-28 °C. The overall uncertainty of the calibration process, considering both field generation and measurement accuracy, is estimated to be within ±0.15%, ensuring the reliability of the proposed calibration method for high precision magnetic field measurements.

The wide-range vector magnetic field measurements (up to the order of mT) have been employed for many years to measure currents, and displacements or detect magnetic anomalies in space applications. In recent years, solid-state-based magnetic sensors, such as Hall or magnetic-induction, have been extremely regarded for space missions because of their characterizations as miniaturized, highly sensitive, and robust. For this case, this article concerns the potential of using Hall sensors for wide-range vector magnetic field measurements. Specifically, we develop a new miniature Hall sensor with low noise and wide range to address the conflict between measurement range and noise. To estimate the capacity of the proposed Hall sensor, a dedicated trial platform is established and its specifications are comprehensively characterized, including resolution, noise floor, linearity, stability, and the capability of magnetic tracking. Furthermore, comparative magnetic anomaly detection is conducted using the proposed Hall and two commercial magnetic sensors. The results of the comparison experiments specify the ability of the developed low-noise Hall sensor for wide-range vector magnetic field measurements. The overall size is <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$17\times 17\times3$ </tex-math></inline-formula> mm, the equivalent magnetic field noise density is <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$0.0329 \mu \text{T}$ </tex-math></inline-formula>/Hz<inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{\text {1/2}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> at 1 Hz, and the linearity error is 1% in the range from −4 to +4 mT, which can be employed for magnetic field observation with limited space. Compared to the commercial Hall sensor with the same noise level, the measurement range is increased by about 60% and the linearity is improved by about 500%.

In response to the application requirements of linear Hall sensor chips in aerospace, new energy vehicles, and industrial production, this paper mainly conducts research and design based on high-performance linear Hall sensor temperature compensation circuits, and designs related temperature compensation circuits according to the temperature characteristics of Hall sensors and interface circuits to reduce the temperature coefficient of the output of the entire circuit system, To improve the stability and accuracy of Hall sensor chips in various complex working environments.

This letter presents a novel programmable gain amplifier (PGA) for Hall sensors, integrating temperature compensation and fuse trimming to reduce temperature drift and achieve variable sensitivity. To maintain a consistent gain over a wide temperature range, a Hall device, matching the shape and material of the Hall plates, with a negative temperature coefficient is used as the load, compensating for the temperature variations in the input signal from the Hall plates. High‐order temperature compensation is used to ensure consistent sensitivity of the Hall sensor. Additionally, to accommodate a wide input signal range, a fuse trimming circuit is introduced to adjust the gain of the PGA. Using the GF180‐nm BiCMOS process, the measurement results show that, when used in a Hall sensor, the sensitivity ranges from 1.8 mV/G to 15.8 mV/G, with a linearity error of less than 0.4% and a temperature sensitivity drift of less than 0.3% over the operational temperature range of −40∼140°C.

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To meet the measurement needs of high current in the comprehensive research facility for fusion technology (CRAFT) power supply, a non-magnetic core direct measurement dot matrix Hall high current sensor has been developed. Hall elements have high sensitivity and wide measurement linear range characteristics, making them suitable for high current measurement occasions. As a semiconductor component, the resistivity, mobility, and carrier concentration of its semiconductor material are all functions of temperature, which can cause changes in parameters such as Hall potential, sensitivity coefficient, and internal resistance with temperature, thereby affecting the sensor’s measurement accuracy. Therefore, the temperature compensation method must be taken to ensure signal measurement accuracy. The traditional constant voltage source input compensation method ignores the internal resistance of the constant voltage source. The constant current source input compensation method ignores the quadratic term of temperature change. Both of them are incomplete compensations. This article proposes a constant current source dual compensation method based on two compensation methods. The constant current source dual compensation method can further improve the temperature characteristics of the sensor and enhance the adaptability of the dot matrix Hall current sensor to the environment. According to the simulation and on-site experimental results, the proposed constant current source dual compensation method can effectively reduce the influence of temperature on the parameter error of Hall elements, thereby significantly improving the sensor’s measurement accuracy.

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For the hall current sensor is affected by temperature requires temperature compensation, this paper adopts the method of multi-sensor technology, the method of current sensor as the main sensor, temperature sensor as auxiliary sensor, the measured data as data fusion input, different test current in hall current sensor, the temperature sensor to monitor its working temperature, according to the monitoring results using the Extreme Learning Machine set up the function relationship between the measured current, hall current sensor output voltage and its working temperature and data fusion processing to weaken the temperature interference to the current sensor. Finally, it is shown that through simulation, the measurement accuracy of current sensor is 1~2 orders of magnitude higher than before compensation, which can better meet the requirements of actual measurement.

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The linear and nonlinear temperature responses restrict the application of Hall current sensors operating in thermal power plants and industries. The rise in temperature of electron device-based measurement causes a significant error, leading to undesirable consequences for plant operation and relay coordination. This paper investigates four Hall current sensor types with linear and nonlinear temperature responses. The Hall current sensor, which receives the magnetic excitation from the permanent magnet, exhibits a linear temperature response, and the wire-wound design exhibits a nonlinear temperature response in the temperature range of 306–376 K. The solution scheme with amplitude modulation and thermal sensor integration with interdigitated electrode design having graphene and ZnO–KMnO4 compounds as the dielectric is also proposed. The use of amplitude modulation achieves input frequency immunity with a 0.03% K−1 improvement in the temperature response of the capacitive thermal sensor. Experimental observations confirm the validity of the thermal drift compensation scheme with a 20%–99% reduction of thermal drift error with a suitable choice of a thermal sensor.

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We report on fabrication and performance of sub-micrometer Ni/Au/Ge contacts to a two-dimensional electron gas in an AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure. Utilizing scanning transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and low temperature electrical measurements, we investigate the relationship between contact performance and the mechanical and chemical properties of the annealed metal stack. Contact geometry and crystallographic orientation significantly impact performance. Our results indicate that the spatial distribution of germanium in the annealed contact plays a central role in the creation of high transmission contacts. We characterize the transmission of our contacts at high magnetic fields in the quantum Hall regime. Our work establishes that contacts with an area of 0.5 μm2 and resistance less than 400 Ω can be fabricated with high yield.

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This article presents theoretical and experimental dependences of the Hall voltage in high electric fields with a static magnetic field. Measurements were carried out on the pHEMT heterostructure with donor-acceptor doping. Due to the fact that in high electric fields there is a distribution of electrons from the $\Gamma$ -valley to the satellite L-and X-valleys, it is expected that the dependence of the Hall voltage on the electric field will be nonlinear. The Hall voltage was modeled for fields up to 10 kV/cm. Theoretical calculations predict saturation at the electric field of about 3.5 kV/cm, and then a decrease in the Hall voltage at large fields. Experimentally, it was possible to measure only up to the moment of saturation. However, saturation in the experiment occurred earlier than in the theoretical model (with the electric field of about 1 kV/cm). Assumptions have been made as to what this may be due to.

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Using a recent time-of-flight measurement technique with 1 ps time resolution and electron-energy spectroscopy, we develop a method to measure the longitudinal-optical-phonon emission rate of hot electrons traveling along a depleted edge of a quantum Hall bar. Comparison to a single-particle model implies the scattering mechanism involves a two-step process via an intra-Landau-level transition. We show that this can be suppressed by control of the edge potential profile, and a scattering length >1  mm can be achieved, allowing the use of this system for scalable single-electron device applications.

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A 100 nm MOCVD-grown HEMT AlGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs heterostructure nanomembrane was released from the growth GaAs substrate by ELO using a 300 nm AlAs layer and transferred to sapphire. The heterostructure contained a strained 10 nm 2DEG In0.23Ga0.77As channel with a sheet electron concentration of 3.4 × 1012 cm−2 and Hall mobility of 4590 cm2V−1s−1, which was grown close to the center of the heterostructure to suppress a significant bowing of the nanomembrane both during and after separation from the growth substrate. The as-grown heterostructure and transferred nanomembranes were characterized by HRXRD, PL, SEM, and transport measurements using HEMTs. The InGaAs and AlAs layers were laterally strained: ~−1.5% and ~−0.15%. The HRXRD analysis showed the as-grown heterostructure had very good quality and smooth interfaces, and the nanomembrane had its crystalline structure and quality preserved. The PL measurement showed the nanomembrane peak was shifted by 19 meV towards higher energies with respect to that of the as-grown heterostructure. The HEMTs on the nanomembrane exhibited no degradation of the output characteristics, and the input two-terminal measurement confirmed a slightly decreased leakage current.

Careful testing over a period of 6 years of a number of GaAs/AlGaAs quantized Hall resistors (QHR) made with alloyed AuGe/Ni contacts, both with and without passivating silicon nitride coatings, has resulted in the identification of important mechanisms responsible for degradation in the performance of the devices as resistance standards. Covering the contacts with a film, such as a low-temperature silicon nitride, that is impervious to humidity and other contaminants in the atmosphere prevents the contacts from degrading. The devices coated with silicon nitride used in this study, however, showed the effects of a conducting path in parallel with the 2-dimensional electron gas (2-DEG) at temperatures above 1.1 K which interferes with their use as resistance standards. Several possible causes of this parallel conduction are evaluated. On the basis of this work, two methods are proposed for protecting QHR devices with alloyed AuGe/Ni contacts from degradation: the heterostructure can be left unpassivated, but the alloyed contacts can be completely covered with a very thick (> 3 μm) coating of gold; or the GaAs cap layer can be carefully etched away after alloying the contacts and prior to depositing a passivating silicon nitride coating over the entire sample. Of the two, the latter is more challenging to effect, but preferable because both the contacts and the heterostructure are protected from corrosion and oxidation.

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We report a cryogenic transimpedance amplifier (TA) suitable for cross-correlation current-noise measurements. The TA comprises homemade high-electron-mobility transistors with high transconductance and low noise characteristics, fabricated in an AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure. The low input-referred noise and wide frequency band of the TA lead to a high resolution in current-noise measurements. The TA's low input impedance suppresses unwanted crosstalk between two distinct currents from a sample, justifying the advantage of the TA for cross-correlation measurements. We demonstrate the high resolution of a TA-based experimental setup by measuring the shot noise generated at a quantum point contact in a quantum Hall system.

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The heterostructures are suitable for developing high-performance electronic and optoelectronic devices. In this work, a significant interest in the design and analysis of compound semiconductor Aluminium Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) heterostructures has been realized. These structures are fabricated with alternating layers of GaAs (a direct bandgap material) and AlGaAs (an indirect bandgap material) and have been used to design a range of high-performance devices, including lasers, solar cells, and field-effect transistors. A 30 nm AlGaAs consisting of a middle layer between two GaAs layers with a GaAs substrate has been reported. This work has been carried out at 300 K utilizing a quantum transport and self-consistent method for the proposed AlGaAs/GaAs one-dimensional heterostructure with a gate length of 2 nm and a voltage varying from 0 to 0.1 V. The measured values of doping density (nd) and electron density (ne) of AlGaAs/GaAs one-dimensional heterostructure are 8.96 × 1011 cm−3 and 2 × 1026 cm−3, respectively. The system response to geometric changes in several parameters has been realized. Hence, confined restricted states were computed using wave functions and energies. The GaAs layer on top of quantum well heterostructure interfaces has been used to modulate the wave functions (eigenstates) resulting in pseudo-one dimensional or small-dimension eigenstates. In this work, a comprehensive analysis of 1D AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure through benchmarking with several homo-structures (various thicknesses) has been performed.

We have studied the efficacy of (NH4)2Sx surface passivation on the (311)A GaAs surface. We report XPS studies of simultaneously-grown (311)A and (100) heterostructures showing that the (NH4)2Sx solution removes surface oxide and sulfidizes both surfaces. Passivation is often characterized using photoluminescence measurements; we show that while (NH4)2Sx treatment gives a 40–60 × increase in photoluminescence intensity for the (100) surface, an increase of only 2–3 × is obtained for the (311)A surface. A corresponding lack of reproducible improvement in the gate hysteresis of (311)A heterostructure transistor devices made with the passivation treatment performed immediately prior to gate deposition is also found. We discuss possible reasons why sulfur passivation is ineffective for (311)A GaAs, and propose alternative strategies for passivation of this surface.

This article reports synthesizing and characterizing an AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure, focusing on its potential applications in advanced electronics and optoelectronics. A nanostructured heterostructure was developed through a straightforward electrochemical deposition process, demonstrating significant flexibility in electronic and optical properties. The findings underscore the heterostructure's suitability for LED technology, high-power electronics, and potential in emerging technologies, emphasizing the advantages of the synthesis method in terms of simplicity and scalability.

The influence of the Al0.3Ga0.7As/GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As buffer layer system in the A IIIB V /Ge heterostructure grown on on-axis Si (001) on various defects and mutual diffusion of atoms at the boundary with Ge is investigated. The initial layer Al0.3Ga0.7As is effective in combating the mutual diffusion of atoms. The use of the Al0.3Ga0.7As insert, even with the use of thermocyclic annealing during growth, does not play a significant role in reducing the density of threading dislocations. However, it has a positive effect on reducing the density of antiphase boundaries.