食品感官风味研究的发展现状及展望

Interactions between flavor compounds and food ingredients are reviewed and their influence on flavor perception is discussed. Proteins are known to bind flavor compounds. For β-lactoglobulin, the most-studied example, hydrophobic interactions with volatiles are described. The effect of the medium on the conformation of the protein and its ability to bind flavor compounds is discussed. In general, the retention of volatiles by protein is much lower than that by fat. In emulsions, however, the presence of protein at the oil/water interface induces a significant effect on flavor release and flavor perception of hydrophobic flavor compounds. For starch, an extensively studied hydrocolloid, amylose has been shown to form complexes with aroma compounds. The physical state of carbohydrates is one parameter influencing flavor retention. However, the major effect of hydrocolloids seems to be a limitation for the diffusion of aroma compounds due to changes in viscosity. Addition of fat induces significant retention of hydrophobic flavor compounds resulting in noticeable effects on flavor perception. Changing the fat content modifies the overall perception of a mixture of flavor compounds from different chemical classes. The melting point of the fats influences the solubility of aromas and thus the flavor release. Emulsification and droplet size also affect flavor release and perception. More research is required on the effects of real food samples containing mixtures of different flavor compounds.

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The mouth is the gateway for entrance of food and microorganisms into the organism. The oral cavity is bathed by saliva, which is thus the first fluid that food and microorganisms will face after their entrance. As a result, saliva plays different functions, including lubrication, predigestion, protection, detoxification, and even transport of taste compounds to chemoreceptors located in the taste buds. To ensure its function of protection, saliva contains reactive harmful compounds such as reactive oxygen species that are controlled and neutralized by the antioxidant activity of saliva. Several antioxidant molecules control the production of molecules such as reactive oxygen compounds, neutralize them and/or repair the damage they have caused. Therefore, a balance between reactive oxidant species and antioxidant compounds exists. At the same time, food can also contain antioxidant compounds, which can participate in the equilibrium of this balance. Numerous studies have investigated the effects of different food components on the antioxidant capacity of saliva that correspond to the ability of saliva to neutralize reactive oxygen species. Contradictory results have sometimes been obtained. Moreover, some antioxidant compounds are also cofactors of enzymatic reactions that affect flavor compounds. Recent studies have considered the salivary antioxidant capacity to explain the release of flavor compounds <i>ex vivo</i> or <i>in vivo</i>. This article aims to review the effect of food on the antioxidant capacity of saliva and the impact of salivary antioxidant capacity on flavor perception after a brief presentation of the different molecules involved.

This study was designed to determine the perceived intensity and pleasantness of different food flavors. A group of 32 young subjects (mean age: 22, range 20-25) and 23 elderly subjects (mean age: 76, range 72-82) judged the intensity and the pleasantness of five series of food flavors, each with five geometrically spaced concentration levels: (a) bouillon flavor in water, (b) tomato juice flavor in water, (c) orange juice flavor in water, (d) strawberry flavor in yogurt, and (e) sugar in unsweetened yogurt. On average, the elderly subjects had lower perceived intensities for the highest concentrations of the series of bouillon, tomato juice, strawberry flavor in yogurt, and sugar in yogurt, whereas the average responses to the lowest concentrations were almost equal. The slope of the psychophysical function for the orange juice flavor was equal for the group of young and elderly subjects. Optimal preferred concentrations were higher for the elderly than for the young subjects in the cases of bouillon, tomato juice and orange flavor. Optimal concentrations for strawberry flavor and sugar in yogurt were about equal. It was found that there are considerable differences between young and elderly subjects in the sensory perception and pleasantness of food flavors. Changes with age in functions relating (a) concentration with perceived intensity (psychophysical), (b) concentration with pleasantness, and (c) perceived intensity with pleasantness were specific for the different flavor qualities.

ABSTRACT Perception of flavor intensity from a series of model foods was recorded during normal mastication by 8 subjects. Samples varied in gelatin concentration (5–25%) and in the sweetener added (sucrose or aspartame) and represented a range of physical and mechanical properties. All contained the same level of a commercial flavor (banana). Mastication patterns were recorded using electromyography simultaneously with sensory assessment. Increasing the mechanical strength and melting point of the samples resulted in longer chewing times and lower intensity and more prolonged flavor perception. The temporal pattern of flavor perception was closely linked with mastication patterns for each subject but exhibited large individual differences. Flavor perception was influenced by the habitual oral breakdown patterns for individuals.

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In our previous studies, we examined the relationship between changes in mood, verbal (semantic) behavior, and non-verbal (skin temperature) activity induced by inhalation of essential oil fragrances, as well as linalool and its enantiomers. Sensory evaluation was a key component of these studies. We have found that perceived sensory attributes reported by participants can be represented via sensory spectrograph: A bar graph where the mean of the impression is plotted against descriptors of the setting for the semantic impression. In this paper, we present our latest attempts at assessing the taste of food using a sensory spectrograph. We conducted two studies: One in which participants assessed the taste of cookies with or without bean curd lees and one in which participants evaluated the taste of Miso soup and Sumashi soup as a function of salty concentration and soup stock consistency.

Smell, which allows us to gather information about the hedonic value of an odor, is affected by many factors. This study aimed to assess the relationship among individual factors, odor sensitivity, and enjoyment, and to evaluate how overall flavor perception and liking in actual food samples are affected by odor sensitivity. A total of 749 subjects, from four different Italian regions, participated in the study. The olfactory capabilities test on four odors (anise, banana, mint, and pine), as well as PROP (6-n-prpyl-2-thiouracil) status and food neophobia were assessed. The subjects were clustered into three groups of odor sensitivity, based on the perceived intensity of anise. The liking and intensity of the overall flavor were evaluated for four chocolate puddings with increasing sweetness (C1, C2, C3, and C4). The individual variables significantly affected the perceived intensity and liking of the odors. Even if all of the odor sensitivity groups perceived the more intensely flavored samples as the C1 and C4 chocolate puddings, the high-sensitivity group scored the global flavor of all of the samples as more intense than the low-sensitivity group. The low-sensitive subjects evaluated the liking of the sweeter samples with higher scores than the moderate-sensitive subjects, whereas the high-sensitive subjects gave intermediate scores. In conclusion, odor sensitivity plays a pivotal role in the perception and liking of real food products; this has to be taken into account in the formulation of new products, suitable for particular categories with reduced olfactory abilities.

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Plants produce many volatile metabolites. A small subset of these compounds is sensed by animals and humans, and the volatile profiles are defining elements of the distinct flavors of individual foods. Flavor volatiles are derived from an array of nutrients, including amino acids, fatty acids, and carotenoids. In tomato, almost all of the important flavor-related volatiles are derived from essential nutrients. The predominance of volatiles derived from essential nutrients and health-promoting compounds suggests that these volatiles provide important information about the nutritional makeup of foods. Evidence supporting a relation between volatile perception and nutrient or health value will be reviewed.

People are typically involved in different activities while eating, particularly when eating alone, such as watching television or playing games on their phones. Previous research in Human-Food Interaction (HFI) has primarily focused on studying people’s motivation and analyzing of the media content watched while eating. However, their impact on human behavioral and cognitive processes, particularly flavor perception and its attributes, remains underexplored. We present a user study to investigate the influence of six types of videos, including mukbang – a new food video genre, on flavor perceptions (taste sensations, liking, and emotions) while eating plain white rice. Our findings revealed that participants perceived positive emotional changes and reported significant differences in their augmented taste sensations (e.g., spicy and salty) with different food-based videos. Our findings provided insights into using our approach to promote digital commensality and healthier eating (digital augmentation without altering the food), highlighting the scope for future research.

Aging diminishes chemosensory functioning, in particular the sense of smell, thus possibly decreasing the enjoyment from food. We examined the effect of age on ortho- and retronasal perception and on pleasantness ratings of cream cheese in which 3 levels of food aromas (vanilla or basil) were combined, respectively, with 3 levels of sucrose or NaCl. The elderly (n=59, 60-85 years) and young (n=39, 21-38 years) subjects were also tested for olfactory identification ability. As expected, the young differentiated odor intensities better than the elderly. The sucrose and NaCl levels affected overall flavor intensity and pleasantness similarly in both age groups. The flavor of vanilla, but not that of basil, was favored by the elderly, suggesting that strong flavor in an appropriate context can improve the hedonic quality. The odor identification declined with age in the elderly and on average, it was lower in the elderly than in the young. Ability to identify odors was not associated with ratings of odor intensities.

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Volatiles in food products are one of the important determinants in food manufacturing. It could reflect the quality of food and the degree of consumer acceptance and choice. The formation of the aroma is dependent on a complex mixture of different types of chemical groups such as aldehydes, acids, esters, terpenes, pyrazines, and furans. These products could be emitted as a result of different impulsive and assisted processes that food could undergo such as cooking, fermentation, contamination, storage, etc. The analysis of these compounds could be challenging due to the complex mixture in the aroma. Four main steps were distinguished in the analysis of these products: isolation, separation, identification and sensory determination. The most widely used methods for the separation of volatiles are solid-phase micro extraction-(SPME) and stir bar sorptive extraction-(SBSE) extractions. The detection of the key volatile in the aroma of food could be achieved by chromatography with an olfactometry detector (GC O), solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE). Mostly, mass spectrometry is used in combination with the GC technique in the separation of volatile compounds. The electronic nose is another option to characterize the aroma in food. The basics of these techniques were delivered along with the sensory impact of volatiles for each functional group.

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From birth, nature teaches us to make judgements on our environment based in large measure on color. As such, it plays a key role in food choice by influencing taste thresholds, sweetness perception, food preference, pleasantness, and acceptability. Its role is elusive and difficult to quantify, however, which at times has placed color in a secondary role to the other sensory characteristics, a position not entirely consistent with the facts. Color, in a quantitative sense, has been shown to be able to replace sugar and still maintain sweetness perception in flavored foods. It interferes with judgments of flavor intensity and identification and in so doing has been shown to dramatically influence the pleasantness and acceptability of foods. Studies in the literature have used cross-sectional population panels to study these effects, but a recent investigation of color-sensory interactions in beverages has compared the response of a college age group with the response of a panel consisting of a more mature population. Interestingly, the older group showed significant differences from the college age group in their response to the effects of color on several sensory parameters as well as showing a direct correlation between beverage consumption and color. Color is often taken for granted, but this position must be reevaluated in view of such studies and the need to create more appealing foods for different segments of our society.

Variations in a taste receptor gene accounted for a major portion of individual differences in PROP bitterness perception in both children and adults, as well as a portion of individual differences in preferences for sweet flavors in children but not in adults. These findings underscore the advantages of studying genotype effects on behavioral outcomes in children, especially as they relate to taste preferences because cultural forces may sometimes override the A49P genotypic effects in adults. New knowledge about the molecular basis of food likes and dislikes in children, a generation that will struggle with obesity and diabetes, may suggest strategies to overcome diet-induced diseases.

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Consumers are often dissatisfied with the flavor of fresh tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) purchased in the supermarket. There are several reasons for this, ranging from poor genetic material to harvest and handling procedures. Research is ongoing to determine the important flavor components in tomato in order to give breeders and molecular biologists access to objective flavor criteria for use in selection of high-quality material. Furthermore, harvest and postharvest handling, and shipping and storage procedures can be analyzed for their effects on important flavor components. FLAVOR TRIVIA To successfully conduct this research, one must first understand what comprises flavor and how it is perceived. The nose has olfactory nerve endings at the back with receptors that bind volatiles emanating from food. These reactions are somewhat analogous to enzyme/ substrate stereochemical associations. Tastes such as sweet, sour, salty, or bitter are perceived because of reactions of sugars or polyalcohols, hydronium ions, sodium ions, glucosides , alkaloids, etc., with receptors located in certain regions of the tongue. The nerves in the tongue can also detect texture, temperature, metallic irritation, bite (carbonation), chemical heat [e.g., hot pepper ( Capsicum fruitescens L.)], etc., collectively known as trigeminal responses. The olfactory system is the more sensitive of the two organs, however, and the most sensitive of the five senses. It can detect odors in parts per trillion whereas receptors on the tongue can detect flavor compounds in parts per hundred. The adverse side of this extreme sensitivity is fatigue, which may be a protective mechanism against nerve damage (DeRovira, 1997). Nevertheless, the fatigue factor must be considered in sensory work with aroma compounds. The extreme sensitivity of the olfactory organ has played an important role in the evolutionary development of mammals, allowing for the odor imprinting involved in olfactory recognition. This has helped in developing behavioral relationships, such as mother-offspring, consort interactions, and general kin recognition, not to mention detection of predator and prey (Margot and Salvadori, 1995; Rouhi, 1996). Specific odors can evoke powerful thoughts and emotions in humans. The sense of smell, therefore, has played a key role in several areas important to species survival. In mammals at least 1000 receptor genes are devoted to encoding receptors that recognize odors; these comprise 1% to 2% of the mammalian genome (Rouhi, 1996). Many factors can affect our perception of flavor, especially the components of flavor made up of aroma compounds. Smelling an aromatic food through the front of the nose may produce a different

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Plant-based (PB) meat and dairy alternatives are a growing trend with potential for contributing to improving the sustainability of global food systems. Despite sustained growth and interest, these products are still niche in most Western countries. From a sensory perspective, meat and dairy products possess unique flavor and textural properties that are not easily replicated in PB alternatives. The first part of this short review focuses on current challenges and strategies to improve the sensory quality of these products, which, despite advances, overall remain inferior to their dairy and meat counterparts. The second part highlights the need for a deeper integration of sensory and non-sensory factors, and the consideration of individual differences underlying consumer acceptance of PB products. In closing, we argue that future product development and public health efforts should move away from ‘one size fits all’ and toward targeted approaches catering to different consumer groups.

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This paper discusses the comprehensive and practical training that was delivered to students in a university classroomon how sensory evaluation can be used to determine acceptability of food products. The report presents how studentsused their training on sensory evaluation methods and analysis and applied it to improving and predicting acceptabilityof new innovative products that they developed. Students were exposed to and trained on performing some of the majorsensory test methods, including discrimination, descriptive, and affective tests. They were also exposed to exerciseswhich involved them physically setting up a test area, presenting samples that were coded and properly displayed,collating data from sensory evaluation questionnaires, statistical analysis of data collated and the use of the results ofthe analysis to make decisions on product acceptability and improvement. Students successfully applied their trainingand were able to not only get feedback on the specific food characteristics of their products that could be improved butwere also able to conclude that the products they presented to the panelists were acceptable and that the panelists had ahighly positive attitude towards eating the products and even purchasing if these were to become available in themarket. Since appropriate statistical analysis was applied for the different sensory evaluation methods used for each ofthe different products, valid information and conclusions that can prove product quality and acceptability was gatheredand can be presented to any product development and marketing departments in any food and beverage company thatmay wish to adopt and produce these products.

Honey-mustard chicken roasting in an oven, fashion models sporting the latest line of lipstick, blush and balm, and the piercing sound of paper being torn in half may not seem to have much in common. But in reality, food, cosmetic and paper products similar to these often undergo rigorous testing at some stage or another as part of a fascinating-and stimulating-scientific process: sensory evaluation.Aimed at the practicing sensory professional, Sensory Evaluation Techniques, Third Edition, makes product evaluation clear, concise, and approachable, with the simplest to the most complex sensory methods and their interpretation spelled out. The book explores the theory and applications of sensory evaluation methods with sufficient background material to allow the user to understand the evaluation of sensory perception and actually perform sensory tests. The book's "how-to" description of sensory evaluation methods features all of the commonly-used practical sensory tests, followed by a guide to selecting the optimal method for a given problem. Descriptions are accompanied by several practical examples. Consumer research techniques are included, and the book contains complete instructions for the Spectrumä method of descriptive analysis, as well as relevant selection of those statistical techniques the sensory analyst needs, with examples illustrating the analysis of sensory tests.New in the Third Edition is the latest information on sensory tests and statistical techniques for the analysis of sensory data being introduced all over the world. The Unified Approach to discrimination testing, for example, which is now becoming the norm in sensory science, is examined in detail, with examples provided. Also new: a Test Sensitivity Analyzer and over 300 scales and hundreds of standard terms for the Spectrum method. So whether it be for instructors and students of sensory science, practicing sensory analysts, or researchers and libraries in the production and marketin

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&lt;p&gt;This systematic overview tries to link scientific knowledge on human perception and appreciation mechanisms to culinary practices. We discuss the roles of the human senses during eating, starting out with basic mechanisms of taste and smell perception, up to principles of aesthetics. These insights are related to how foods are experienced, how ingredients are combined, the use of flavor bases in cuisines, the creation of a full course meal, the choice of a beverage with a dish, and how people learn to appreciate new foods.&lt;/p&gt;

Dans cet article je propose d’examiner pourquoi l’analyse sensorielle – discipline appartenant au champ des sciences de l’alimentation et qui “consiste en un ensemble de techniques permettant de mesurer précisément les réactions humaines vis à vis des aliments” –rencontre des difficultés à évaluer les propriétés sensorielles des aliments issus d’une production “artisanale”. En tant que spécialiste de l’analyse sensorielle, je me préoccupe de cette limite de la discipline qui empêche de prendre en compte des categories entières d’aliments et d’expériences de consommateurs. J’entends démontrer que les relations historiques entre l’analyse sensorielle et l’industrie alimentaire ont conduit à asseoir certaines hypothèses qui ne peuvent s’appliquer en-dehors d’une production industrielle, et qui par conséquent nuisent à l’évaluation d’aliments issus d’une production artisanale. Je commence par tracer les grandes lignes de ces liens historiques, puis j’expose les hypotheses qui, à mon sens, posent problème, pour finir par démontrer – en me basant sur mes propres recherches - la nécessité de developer des methodologies sensorielles qui puissant être appliquées largement aux aliments, quel que soit leur mode de production.

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ABSTRACT In psychology, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve is a key part of Signal Detection Theory, which is used for calculating d′ values in discrimination tests. In food sensory science, the ROC curve can also be a useful tool. To give a specific example, it is not always convenient to use forced‐choice protocols for difference tests; foods may be fatiguing, and assessments with single presentations, like the Yes–No procedure, might be more appropriate. In this case, ROC curves provide a useful method for computing d′ values. More generally, ROC curves give information about cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies are important for difference tests. Values of d′ can only be computed if the cognitive strategy used in the test is known. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS When using methods other than two‐alternative forced‐choice in difference testing, a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve would be required to compute d′. This is because when assessing discrimination ability, the cognitive strategy of the subject must be taken into account, and ROC curves can sometimes reveal the cognitive strategy used by the subject. This article describes how the cognitive strategy can be determined from the subject's ROC curve. The hidden assumptions made when using ROC curves and how these assumptions can be tested are also given. This information is essential to researchers in sensory evaluation as well as those using these methods in a practical setting.

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In food science and technology, understanding off-flavors has a significance with both technical and commercial implications. In the food industry in the United States, it is a widely held truism that consumers will not buy a product if they do not like the way it tastes or if it contains unpleasant flavors. But how can science determine when food is off putting, and how do scientists learn to address bad tastes in their experimental and technical practice? Based on ethnographic work with food scientists in the United States, this paper is a reflexive account of learning to taste off-flavors, a form of sensory learning that utilizes the scientist’s own body as a kind of instrument. The paper argues that a particular understanding of the consumer sensorium emerges through food scientists’ approach to off-flavors. This is an image of the consumer as a chemically receptive sensory system that is highly sensitive to compounds at trace levels. By utilizing the sensitivity of their own senses, food scientists exploit the relationship between distaste, memory and sensory perception as a form of training to produce future aesthetic memories of off-flavors that can be deployed in a technical context.

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Contents VOLUME 1 - FOOD SCIENCE: PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTS FOOD COMPONENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES Carbohydrate: Chemistry Carbohydrate: Physical Properties Carbohydrate: Starch Functional Properties of Carbohydrates: Polysaccharide Gums Protein Determination in Food and Agriculture Systems Protein Denaturation Food Protein Functionalities Chemistry and Biochemistry of Fats Physical Properties of Fats Water Soluble Vitamins Fat Soluble Vitamins Fundamental Characteristics of Water Bioactive Amines Pigments in Plant Foods FOOD CATEGORIES Beverages, Carbonated Muffins Cereals: Biology, Pre- and Post-Harvest Management Legume: Horticulture, Properties, and Processing Asian Fermented Soybean Products Vegetable: Types and Biology Nutritional Values of Vegetables, Nutrit Canned Vegetables: Product Description Frozen Vegetables: Product Description Fruits: Horticulture and Functional Properties Frozen Fruits: Product Descriptions Milk: Proteins Enzymes of Significance to Milk and Dairy Products Meat Chemistry Chemical Composition of Red Meat Meat Species Poultry: Chemistry and Biochemistry Chemical Composition of Poultry Meat Poultry Processing Quality Fats and Oils: Science and Applications Fish Biology and Food Science Edible Shellfish: Biology and Science Aquaculture of Finfish and Shellfish: Principles and Applications Frozen Seafood: Production Description Freezing Seafood and Seafood Products: Principles and Applications The Application of Gene Technology in the Wine Industry FOOD ANALYSIS Principles of Food Analysis Analysis of the Chemical Composition of Foods Spectroscopy Basics Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy in Food Science Application of Gas Chromatography to the Identification Foodborne Pathogens and Chemical Contaminants in Foods Modern Thin-layer Chromatography in Food Analysis High Performance Liquid Chromatography The Use of Mass Spectrometry in Food Analysis Food Analysis: Other Methods FOOD MICROBIOLOGY Basics Spoilage Microbiology of Land Muscle Microbiology of Marine Muscle Microbial Analysis of Foods Rapid Methods in Food Diagnostics VOLUME II - FOOD SCIENCE: INGREDIENTS, HEALTH, AND SAFETY FOOD ATTRIBUTES Sensory Science: Measuring Consumer Preference Sensory Science: Methodology Sensory (Frozen) Food Concepts Flavor of Frozen Foods Textures of Frozen Foods Chemical and Physical Aspects of Color in Frozen Muscle-based Foods FOOD FERMENTATIONS Fermentation: General Principles Quality and Flavour of Fermented Products Meat Fermentation: Principles and Applications Liquid Fermented Milk Products Semi-solid Cultured Dairy Products: Principles and Applications Principles of Production of Cheese Yeasts Pickles Manufacturing in the United States: Quality Assurance and Establishment Inspection FOOD AND WORKERS' SAFETY, FOOD SECURITY U.S. Food Standards and Food Grades Standards for Meat and Poultry in the U.S. FDA, GMP, HACCP, Food Code Filth and Other Foreign Objects in Food: A Review of Analytical Methods and Health Significance Food Pathogens and Consumer Practices Migratory Chemicals from Food Containers and Preparation Utensils Food Plant Sanitation and Quality Assurance Retail Food Sanitation: Prerequisites to HACCP Seafood HACCO, NMFI Workers' Safety and Types of Food Establishments Animal Foods, Feeds, and Drugs Bioterrorism FUNCTIONAL FOOD INGREDIENTS Food Additives Food Processing Biofilms and Antimicrobial Agents Antioxidants Synthetic Colors Biosynthesis of Natural Aroma Compounds Natural Flavors Spices and Seasonings Eggs as Nutritional and Functional Food Ingredients Enzymes as Functional Ingredients Composition and Structure Function Relationships in Gums Heat Induced Aggregation, Gelation, and phase Separation of the Globular Protein B-lactoglobulin Emulsions and Emulsifier Phytates Sorbates Artificial Sweeteners: An Overview NUTRITION AND HEALTH Chinese Edible Botanicals: Types, Efficacy, and Safety Vegetable Parts and Dietary Supplements Health, Diet, and Advertisement in the United States Food Allergy: A Synopsis VOLUME III: FOOD ENGINEERING AND FOOD PROCESSING FOOD PROCESSING Units of Operation FOOD DRYING Dehydrated Vegetables: Principles Drying Tropical Fruits Drying Pears Freeze Drying THERMAL PROCESSING Principles and Applications Heat Transfer Temperature Time Modeling of Thermal Processing of Foods The Engineering Aspects of Deep-fat Frying FREEZING Principles Microwave and Frozen Foods Components Meat: Quality and Shelf-life Frozen Storage Frozen Dough NEW TECHNOLOGY Minimal Processing Foods MAP Ohmic and Inductive Heating Ultra Sound Ultra Light AP: Principles Irradiation MW: Basics (Principles) PEF Nanotechnology Sensors Genetically Modified Organisms PACKAGING New Technology Plastics Paper Frozen Foods Packaging Thermal Processing of Packaged Foods Edible Films and Coatings INGREDIENTS TECHNOLOGY Spices and Seasonings Sweet Flavors Application Emulsion Gums Pectin MODELING Modeling Kinetics I Modeling Kinetics II Modeling: Experimental Design Model Building WASTE MANAGEMENT Waste Water Poultry Waste Meat Waste VOLUME IV - FOOD TECHNOLOGY AND FOOD PROCESSING FOOD CATEGORIES Bakery Products Chocolate Mozzarella Cheeses Processed Cheese Yogurt Eggs: Biology and Nutrition Frozen Desert Edible Fats and Oils Fats: Hydrogenation Grain: Asian Noodles Grain: Pasta Seafood Processing: Science and Technology Fish Paste, Surimi Caviar, Roe Thermal Processing of Meat Frozen Meat Processing Equipment Dry-cured Ham Poultry Carcass Canned Poultry Ham Poultry Nugget and Pate Snacks, Extrusion Snacks, Coatings Vegetables: Horticulture and Processing Tofu Beer Wine, Chinese Wine Biotechnology Whiskey FOOD FERMENTATION Principles Starter Cultures Product Manufacture Sour Cream Cheese: QC and Sanitation Meat Fermentation Jalapeno Sour Dough FOOD MICROBIOLOGY Basic Requirements Conventional Microbial Testing Methods and Microscopy Techniques Immuno-based Methods for the Detection of Bacterial Pathogens Genetic-based Methods for Detection of Bacterial Pathogens Methods for the Detection of Viral and Parasitic Protozoan Pathogens in Foods Methods for Detection of Molds and Mycotoxins WATER TECHNOLOGY Water: Sources and Properties Water: Purification and Distribution Water Chemistry and Analysis Beverage Plant Sanitation FOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY Contaminants Personal Hygiene Cleaning a Processing Plant Food Plant Equipment Frozen Food Plant Sanitation Oil and Fat Plant Sanitation US FDA Guidelines for Food Security USDA Safety and Security Guidelines for the Transportation and Distribution of Met, Poultry, and Egg Products

Food Science and Sensory Analysis is one of the courses in OTTIMMO International Master Gourmet Academy. This module is intended for the student in 3rd semester who take food science and sensory evaluation subject. This is the first edition of “Sensory Evaluation Module”. Six different methods are taught for analyzing the sensory of the panelist for a food products in this module. This module will explore the fundamentals of sensory evaluation course. In this module, the author has attempted to present an easy way to understand about sensory evaluation method.

The sensory experience of eating is an important determinant of food intake control, often attributed to the positive hedonic response associated with certain sensory cues. However, palatability is just one aspect of the sensory experience. Sensory cues based on a food's sight, smell, taste and texture are operational before, during and after an eating event. The focus of this review is to look beyond palatability and highlight recent advances in our understanding of how certain sensory characteristics can be used to promote better energy intake control. We consider the role of visual and odour cues in identifying food in the near environment, guiding food choice and memory for eating, and highlight the ways in which tastes and textures influence meal size and the development of satiety after consumption. Considering sensory characteristics as a functional feature of the foods and beverages we consume provides the opportunity for research to identify how sensory enhancements might be combined with energy reduction in otherwise palatable foods to optimize short-term energy intake regulation in the current food environment. Moving forward, the challenge for sensory nutritional science will be to assess the longer-term impact of these principles on weight management.

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The food industry faces growing challenges due to evolving consumer demands, requiring digital technologies to enhance sensory analysis. Innovations such as eye tracking, FaceReader, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI) are transforming consumer behavior research by providing deeper insights into sensory experiences. For instance, FaceReader captures emotional responses to food by analyzing facial expressions, offering valuable data on consumer preferences for taste, texture, and aroma. Together, these technologies provide a comprehensive understanding of the sensory experience, aiding product development and branding. Electronic nose, tongue, and eye technologies also replicate human sensory capabilities, enabling objective and efficient assessment of aroma, taste, and color. The electronic nose (E-nose) detects volatile compounds for aroma evaluation, while the electronic tongue (E-tongue) evaluates taste through electrochemical sensors, ensuring accuracy and consistency in sensory analysis. The electronic eye (E-eye) analyzes food color, supporting quality control processes. These advancements offer rapid, non-invasive, reproducible assessments, benefiting research and industrial applications. By improving the precision and efficiency of sensory analysis, digital tools help enhance product quality and consumer satisfaction in the competitive food industry. This review explores the latest digital methods shaping food sensory research and innovation.

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Sensory evaluation of food principles and practices (2nd ed.), by Harry Lawless and Hildegarde Heymann, New York, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 2010, 596 pp., £53.99 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-4...

Among descriptive sensory evaluation methods, temporal methods have a wide audience in food science because they make it possible to follow perception as close as possible to the moment when sensations are perceived. The aim of this work was to describe 30 years of research involving temporal methods by mapping the scientific literature using a systematic scoping review. Thus, 363 research articles found from a search in Scopus and Web of Science from 1991 to 2022 were included. The extracted data included information on the implementation of studies referring to the use of temporal methods (details related to subjects, products, descriptors, research design, data analysis, etc.), reasons why they were used and the conclusions they allowed to be drawn. Metadata analysis and critical appraisal were also carried out. A quantitative and qualitative synthesis of the results allowed the identification of trends in the way in which the methods were developed, refined, and disseminated. Overall, a large heterogeneity was noted in the way in which the temporal measurements were carried out and the results presented. Some critical research gaps in establishing the validity and reliability of temporal methods have also been identified. They were mostly related to the details of implementation of the methods (e.g., almost no justification for the number of consumers included in the studies, absence of report on panel repeatability) and data analysis (e.g., prevalence of use of exploratory data analysis, only 20% of studies using confirmatory analyses considering the dynamic nature of the data). These results suggest the need for general guidelines on how to implement the method, analyze and interpret data, and report the results. Thus, a template and checklist for reporting data and results were proposed to help increase the quality of future research.

Honey-mustard chicken roasting in an oven, fashion models sporting the latest line of lipstick, blush and balm, and the piercing sound of paper being torn in half may not seem to have much in common. But in reality, food, cosmetic and paper products similar to these often undergo rigorous testing at some stage or another as part of a fascinating-and stimulating-scientific process: sensory evaluation.Aimed at the practicing sensory professional, Sensory Evaluation Techniques, Third Edition, makes product evaluation clear, concise, and approachable, with the simplest to the most complex sensory methods and their interpretation spelled out. The book explores the theory and applications of sensory evaluation methods with sufficient background material to allow the user to understand the evaluation of sensory perception and actually perform sensory tests. The book's "how-to" description of sensory evaluation methods features all of the commonly-used practical sensory tests, followed by a guide to selecting the optimal method for a given problem. Descriptions are accompanied by several practical examples. Consumer research techniques are included, and the book contains complete instructions for the Spectrumä method of descriptive analysis, as well as relevant selection of those statistical techniques the sensory analyst needs, with examples illustrating the analysis of sensory tests.New in the Third Edition is the latest information on sensory tests and statistical techniques for the analysis of sensory data being introduced all over the world. The Unified Approach to discrimination testing, for example, which is now becoming the norm in sensory science, is examined in detail, with examples provided. Also new: a Test Sensitivity Analyzer and over 300 scales and hundreds of standard terms for the Spectrum method. So whether it be for instructors and students of sensory science, practicing sensory analysts, or researchers and libraries in the production and marketin

Introduces statistical methods employed in analysing sensory data. Describes significance testing and simple procedures for determination of population characteristics in sensory data and highlights sources of error and replication in the sensory context. Discusses factors important in selection of an appropriate statistical test for sensory data.

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Texture and mouthfeel arising from the consumption of food and beverages are critical to consumer choice and acceptability. While the food structure design rules for many existing products have been well established, although not necessarily understood, the current drive to produce healthy consumer acceptable food and beverages is pushing products into a formulation space whereby these design rules no longer apply. Both subtle and large scale alterations to formulations can result in significant changes in texture and mouthfeel, even when measurable texture-related quantities such as rheology are the same. However, we are only able to predict sensations at the initial stages of consumption from knowledge of material properties of intact food. Research is now on going to develop strategies to capture the dynamic aspects of oral processing, including: from a sensory perspective, the recent development of Temporal Dominance Sensation; from a material science perspective, development of new in vitro techniques in thin film rheology and tribology as well as consideration of the multifaceted effect of saliva. While in vivo, ex vivo, imitative and empirical approaches to studying oral processing are very insightful, they either do not lend themselves to routine use or are too complex to be able to ascertain the mechanism for an observed behaviour or correlation with sensory. For these reasons, we consider that fundamental in vitro techniques are vital for rational design of food, provided they are designed appropriately to capture the important physics taking place during oral processing. We map the oral breakdown trajectory through 6 stages and suggest a dynamic multi-scale approach to capture underlying physics. The ultimate goal is to use fundamental insights and techniques to design new food and beverages that are healthy yet acceptable to consumers.

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Growing demand for sustainable food has led to the development of meat analogs to satisfy flexitarians and conscious meat-eaters. Successful combinations of functional ingredients and processing methods result in the generation of meat-like sensory attributes, which are necessary to attract non-vegetarian consumers. Sensory science is a broader research field used to measure and interpret responses to product properties, which is not limited to consumer liking. Acceptance is evaluated through hedonic tests to assess the overall liking and degree of liking for individual sensory attributes. Descriptive analysis provides both qualitative and quantitative results of the product's sensory profile. Here, original research papers are reviewed that evaluate sensory attributes of meat analogs and meat extenders through hedonic testing and/or descriptive analysis to demonstrate how these analytical approaches are important for consumer acceptance. Sensory evaluation combined with instrumental measures, such as texture and color, can be advantageous and help to improve the final product. Future applications of these methods might include integration of sensory tests during product development to better direct product processing and formulation. By conducting sensory evaluation, companies and researchers will learn valuable information regarding product attributes and overall liking that help to provide more widely accepted and sustainable foods.

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The second in a set, this volume extends the analysis of perception of food qualities to the area of multivariate methods, such as multidimensional scaling, computer-aided evaluation, experimental design, and simultaneous optimization of food products and concepts. Extensive charts, tables, and illu

ABSTRACT: Survival analysis concepts to be used in sensory shelf life studies were introduced, together with the equations necessary for calculations. The survival function was defined as the probability of consumers accepting a product beyond a certain storage time. Censoring phenomena, a key concept in survival analysis, was defined and has been shown to occur in sensory shelf‐life data. Concepts and calculations were applied to a data set obtained from 50 consumers who each tasted seven yogurt samples with different storage times, answering “yes” or “no” to whether they would consume the samples. From this censored data set, nonparametric and parametric models were obtained that allowed shelf‐life estimations.

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Pet food palatability depends first and foremost on the pet and is related to the pet food sensory properties such as aroma, texture and flavor. Sensory analysis of pet foods may be conducted by humans via descriptive or hedonic analysis, pets via acceptance or preference tests, and through a number of instrumental analysis methods. Sensory analysis of pet foods provides additional information on reasons behind palatable and unpalatable foods as pets lack linguistic capabilities. Furthermore, sensory analysis may be combined with other types of information such as personality and environment factors to increase understanding of acceptable pet foods. Most pet food flavor research is proprietary and, thus, there are a limited number of publications available. Funding opportunities for pet food studies would increase research and publications and this would help raise public awareness of pet food related issues. This mini-review addresses current pet food sensory analysis literature and discusses future challenges and possibilities.

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Various new technologies used by marketing researchers, marketers, and scientific researchers are presented in this book at how product testing and sensory analysis can be used effectively to solve practical, business-oriented problems that occur in corporations. Insights and recommendations are offered for overcoming objections and barriers to new technology. The text is divided into three major sections: measurement tools, mining the database for insights, and using the data for technical and marketing guidance. Topics discussed under measurement tools include 1) measuring the importance of attributes to consumers, consumer discrimination on attributes, and the communication of packages, 2) consumer evaluation of price variables, 3) testing foods on a blind versus branded basis, 4) validating panel ratings, 5) fatigue analysis, and 6) product testing with children. Additional topics include developing and optimizing concepts for food products, segmenting consumers by sensory preferences, and relating expert and consumer ratings. Aspects of data usage for technical and marketing guidance include 1) screening many submissions or new ingredients, 2) optimizing products for acceptance, cost, and stability, 3) developing products from concepts, 4) creating panels for products development and quality control, and 5) integrating product and marketing data in category appraisal. References and a subject index are included. (aje)

The accurate quantification of sensory difference/similarity between foods, as well as consumer acceptance/preference and concepts, is greatly needed to optimize and maintain food quality. The R-Index is one class of measures of the degree of difference/similarity, and was originally developed for sensory difference tests for food quality control, product development, and so on. The index is based on signal detection theory and is free of the response bias that can invalidate difference testing protocols, including categorization and same-different and A-Not A tests. It is also a nonparametric analysis, making no assumptions about sensory distributions, and is simple to compute and understand. The R-Index is also flexible in its application. Methods based on R-Index analysis have been used as detection and sensory difference tests, as simple alternatives to hedonic scaling, and for the measurement of consumer concepts. This review indicates the various computational strategies for the R-Index and its practical applications to consumer and sensory measurements in food science.

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Summary Improved understanding of the sensory responses to fibre fortification may assist manufacturers and health promotion efforts. The effects of fibre fortification (or modified ingredients) on sensory acceptability of baked cereal foods (bread, cookies, muffins) were estimated by linear random‐effects meta‐analysis of twenty eligible studies (869 panellists, 34% male). As little as 2 g per 100 g fortification caused moderate–large reductions in overall acceptability, flavour acceptability, and appearance acceptability in most items, with cookies most negatively affected. Fortification of base nonfortified foods with low initial acceptability improved acceptability; however, at higher basic levels, fortification lowered acceptability. Fortification improved texture acceptability of muffins and bread with low base acceptability, but lowered texture acceptability when base acceptability was high. Flavour improvement of muffins with fortification decreased with increasing base food acceptability. Fibre fortification of baked cereal foods lowers acceptability, but food format and base food acceptability affect the magnitude and direction of responses. Refining fibre fortification approaches could improve consumer uptake.

MEAT Color Measurements on Muscle-Based Foods, J.A. Perez-Alvarez and J. Fernandez-Lopez Measuring Meat Texture, M.B. Solomon, J.S. Eastridge, E.W. Paroczay, and B.C. Bowker Techniques for Sampling and Identification of Volatile Compounds Contributing to Sensory Perception, S. M. van Ruth Sensory Descriptors, G.R. Nute Sensory Perception, R. Deliza and M.B. Abreu Gloria Sensory Aspects of Cooked Meats, N. Nascimento Terra, R.M. Lemes de Campos, and P.C.B. Campagnol PROCESSED MEATS AND POULTRY Color Characteristics of Meat and Poultry Processing, J.A. Perez-Alvarez and J. Fernandez-Lopez Texture Analysis, S. Barbut Flavor of Meat Products, M. Flores Sensory Descriptors for Cooked Meat Products, J.E. Hayes Sensory Descriptors for Dry-Cured Meat Products, M. Flores FISH AND SEAFOOD PRODUCTS Quality Assessment of Fish and Fishery Products by Color Measurement, R. Schubring Instrumental Texture, I. Sanchez-Alonso, M. Barroso, and M. Careche Aroma, and J.S. Elmore Quality Index Methods, G. Hyldig, E. Martinsdottir, K. Sveinsdottir, R. Schelvis, and A. Bremner Sensory Descriptors, G. Hyldig Sensory Aspects of Heat-Treated Seafood, G. Hyldig MILK AND DAIRY FOODS Color, L. Dufosse and P. Galaup Texture, K. Muthukumarappan and C. Karunanithy Rheological Properties and Flavor Release, N. Cayot Flavor Formation, B. d'Acampora Zellner, P. Dugo, G. Dugo, and L. Mondello Flavor, B. d'Acampora Zellner, P. Dugo, G. Dugo, and L. Mondello Determination of Identity and Quality of Dairy Products, R. Karoui

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Multivariate statistics is a tool for examining the relationship of multiple variables simultaneously. Principal component analysis (PCA) is an unsupervised multivariate analysis technique that simplifies the complexity of data by transforming them in a few dimensions showing their trends and correlations. Interests in XLSTAT as statistical software program of choice for routine multivariate statistics has been growing due in part to its compatibility with Microsoft Excel data format. As a case of study, multivariate analysis is used to study the effects of unfiltered beer-based marination on the volatile terpenes and thiols, and sensory attributes of grilled ruminant meats. PCA was conducted to determine the correlations between the abundances of volatile terpenes and thiols and sensory attribute scores in marinated grilled meats, as well as to analyze if there was any clustering based on the type of meat and marination treatments employed.•XLSTAT PCA output successfully reduced the number of variables into 2 components that explained 90.47% of the total variation of the data set.•PCA clustered marinated and unmarinated meats based on the presence and abundances of volatile terpenes, thiols and consumer sensory attribute scores.•PCA could be applied to explore relationships between volatile compounds and sensory attributes in different food systems.

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Abstract Omega‐3 long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC PUFA) positively influence human health. Their main dietary source is fish, especially fish oil. Owing to low fish consumption in many Western countries the average intake of omega‐3 LC PUFA is below the recommended level. This raises interest in diet supplementation and food enrichment with fish oil. However, due to a high degree of unsaturation fish oil is extremely susceptible to oxidation. Oxidation of fish oil increases when added to food products, which may be enhanced by some antioxidants, under certain conditions. For quality control of omega‐3 LC PUFA‐containing foods adequate and combined methods of oxidation assessment should be used, beginning from the raw material and continuing during processing, storage and distribution. To achieve this goal correlation of instrumental and sensory methods with multivariate data analysis may give the best results. In this paper problems of oxidation of fish oil and fish oil‐containing foods, as well as methods for its assessment, are reviewed. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry

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ABSTRACT Versions of the triangle test in which either one or the other stimulus was maintained as the odd one, were found to differ in their effectiveness for a flavored sparkling water system but not for a wine system. The same was found for different orders of presentation of the R‐index sensory difference test. These differences were predicted successfully from the signal detectabilities of the various stimuli using a predictive system called Sequential Sensitivity Analysis (SSA). This extended SSA beyond model systems to food systems. Use was made of a technique of rapid alternate tasting of different stimuli, called ‘warm‐up', to improve judges’ performance.

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Traditional methods to assess heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) are intrusive and can affect results in sensory analysis of food as participants are aware of the sensors. This paper aims to validate a non-contact method to measure HR using the photoplethysmography (PPG) technique and to develop models to predict the real HR and BP based on raw video analysis (RVA) with an example application in chocolate consumption using machine learning (ML). The RVA used a computer vision algorithm based on luminosity changes on the different RGB color channels using three face-regions (forehead and both cheeks). To validate the proposed method and ML models, a home oscillometric monitor and a finger sensor were used. Results showed high correlations with the G color channel (R² = 0.83). Two ML models were developed using three face-regions: (i) Model 1 to predict HR and BP using the RVA outputs with R = 0.85 and (ii) Model 2 based on time-series prediction with HR, magnitude and luminosity from RVA inputs to HR values every second with R = 0.97. An application for the sensory analysis of chocolate showed significant correlations between changes in HR and BP with chocolate hardness and purchase intention.

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The sensory properties of foods are the most important reason people eat the foods they eat. What those properties are and how we best measure those properties are critical to understanding food and eating behavior. Appearance, flavor, texture, and even the sounds of food can impart a desire to eat or cause us to dismiss the food as unappetizing, stale, or even inappropriate from a cultural standpoint. This special issue focuses on how sensory properties, including consumer perceptions, are measured, the specific sensory properties of various foods, which properties might be most important in certain situations, and how consumers use sensory attributes and consumer information to make decisions about what they believe about food and what they will eat.

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Purpose The paper aims at investigating whether and how the product designation of origin (PDO) label influences consumers' acceptance, attributes' perception and purchase intention of PDO foods. Design/methodology/approach The study employs an experimental lab study based on the affective test of acceptance methodology with a nine-point hedonic scale. Three PDO foods are compared with similar non-PDO samples concerning cheese, cured ham and olive oil categories. Findings The presence of PDO labels enhances the consumers' acceptance as well as their perception of sensory attributes. A critical role of the brand name as an enhancer of consumer acceptance also emerges, highlighting the relationship between brand-name and PDO label. Research limitations/implications The main limitation is related to the lab study methodology, which employs a small number of participants and occurs far from a “normal” situation of consumption. The acceptance test, moreover, does not provide explanations about motives underlying the differences in consumers' perception and preferences. Practical implications Practical implications are suggested for food companies concerning the management of both PDO labels and brand strategies and the product's properties that could improve the sensory perception of consumers and their overall product's acceptance. Originality/value The study contributes to the debate on consumer behaviour towards PDO foods by adding evidence about the positive influence of such a certification on individual preferences on the basis of a sensory methodology that has been little employed for studying the domain of product certifications.

In response to the demand for healthier foods in the current market, this study aimed to develop a new bread product using a fermented food product (FFP), a plant-based product composed of soya flour, alfalfa meal, barley sprouts, and viable microorganisms that showed beneficial effects in previous studies. White bread products prepared with three different substitution levels (5, 10, and 15%) of FFP were evaluated for physical characteristics (loaf peak height, length, width), color indices (lightness, redness/greenness, yellowness/blueness), quality properties (loaf mass, volume, specific volume), protein content, crumb digital image analysis, and sensory characteristics. The results revealed that FFP significantly affected all studied parameters, and in most cases, there was a dose-response effect. FFP supplementation affected the nutritional profile and increased the protein content (<i>p</i> < 0.001). The sensory test indicated that consumer acceptance of the studied sensory attributes differed significantly between groups, and bread with high levels of FFP (10 and 15% FFP) was generally more poorly rated than the control (0%) and 5% FFP for most of the variables studied. Despite this, all groups received acceptable scores (overall liking score ≥ 5) from consumers. The sensory analysis concluded that there is a possible niche in the market for these improved versions of bread products.

Dysphagia (swallowing impairment) is a common consequence of stroke and degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. Limited research is available on pureed foods, specifically the qualities of commercial products. Because research has linked pureed foods, specifically in-house pureed products, to malnutrition due to inferior sensory and nutritional qualities, commercial purees also need to be investigated. Proprietary research on sensory attributes of commercial foods is available; however direct comparisons of commercial pureed foods have never been reported. Descriptive sensory analysis as well as nutritional and texture analysis of commercially pureed prepared products was performed using a trained descriptive analysis panel. The pureed foods tested included four brands of carrots, of turkey, and two of bread. Each commercial puree was analyzed for fat (Soxhlet), protein (Dumas), carbohydrate (proximate analysis), fiber (total fiber), and sodium content (Quantab titrator strips). The purees were also texturally compared with a line spread test and a back extrusion test. Differences were found in the purees for sensory attributes as well as nutritional and textural properties. Findings suggest that implementation of standards is required to reduce variability between products, specifically regarding the textural components of the products. This would ensure all commercial products available in Canada meet standards established as being considered safe for swallowing.

Producing products of reliable quality is vitally important to the food and beverage industry. In particular, companies often fail to ensure that the sensory quality of their products remains consistent, leading to the sale of goods which fail to meet the desired specifications or are rejected by the consumer. This book is a practical guide for all those tasked with using sensory analysis for quality control (QC) of food and beverages. Chapters in part one cover the key aspects to consider when designing a sensory QC program. The second part of the book focuses on methods for sensory QC and statistical data analysis. Establishing product sensory specifications and combining instrumental and sensory methods are also covered. The final part of the book reviews the use of sensory QC programs in the food and beverage industry. Chapters on sensory QC for taint prevention and the application of sensory techniques for shelf-life assessment are followed by contributions reviewing sensory QC programs for different products, including ready meals, wine and fish. A chapter on sensory QC of products such as textiles, cosmetics and cars completes the volume. Sensory analysis for food and beverage quality control is an essential reference for anyone setting up or operating a sensory QC program, or researching sensory QC.   Highlights key aspects to consider when designing a quality control program including sensory targets and proficiency testing Examines methods for sensory quality control and statistical data analysis Reviews the use of sensory quality control programs in the food and beverage industry featuring ready meals, wine and fish

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Our perception of the objects and events that fill the world in which we live depends on the integration of the sensory inputs that simultaneously reach our various sensory systems (e.g., vision, audition, touch, taste, and smell). Perhaps the best-known examples of genuinely multisensory experiences come from our perception and evaluation of food and drink. The average person would say that the flavor of food derives primarily from its taste in the mouth. They are often surprised to discover that there is a strong “nasal” role in the perception of flavor. In fact, it has been argued that the majority of the flavor of food actually comes from its smell (e.g., Cain 1977; Murphy and Cain 1980; Rozin 1982). Our perception of food and drink, however, is not simply a matter of combining gustatory and olfactory food cues (although this is undoubtedly very important; Dalton et al. 2000). For instance, our evaluation of the pleasantness of a particular foodstuff can be influenced not only by what it looks, smells, and tastes like, but also what it sounds like in the mouth (think, for example, of the auditory sensations associated with biting into a potato chip or a stick of celery; see Spence and Zampini 2006, for a review). The feel of a foodstuff (i.e., its oral–somatosensory attributes) is also very important; the texture, temperature, viscosity, and even the painful sensations we experience when eating hot foods (e.g., chilli peppers) all contribute to our overall multisensory experience of foodstuffs (e.g., Bourne 1982; Lawless et al. 1985; Tyle 1993). Flavor perception is also influenced by the interactions taking place between oral texture and both olfactory and gustatory cues (see also Bult et al. 2007; Christensen 1980a, 1980b; Hollowood et al. 2002). Given the multisensory nature of our perception of food, it should come as little surprise that many studies have been conducted in order to try and understand the relative contribution of each sense to our overall evaluation of food (e.g., see Delwiche 2004; Spence 2002; Stevenson 2009; Stillman 2002). In this chapter, we review the contribution of visual and auditory cues to the multisensory perception of food. Moreover, any possible influence of visual and auditory aspects of foods and drinks might take place at different stages of the food experience. Visual cues are perceived when foodstuffs are outside of the mouth. Auditory cues are typically primarily perceived when we are actually consuming food.

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ABSTRACT In this article, the evidence demonstrating the significant role that saliva plays in taste and flavor perception in humans is reviewed. Empirical research highlighting the effects of a number of food‐related, environmental and higher‐order cognitive factors (such as attention, mental imagery and labeling) on salivary flow is critically examined. The argument is put forward that changes in salivary flow may have contributed to the results of a number of recent studies of multisensory flavor perception. Indeed, it is striking how rarely salivation is mentioned by cognitive psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists when studying gustatory and/or multisensory flavor perception. The hope is that this review may help to redress this potentially important imbalance. Recommendations for future research in this area are included, and finally, the potential commercial applications of these findings are also reviewed briefly. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS This review highlights the potential problems of interpretation that academic researchers interested either directly in the topic of taste or multisensory flavor perception, or indirectly in the effects of environmental (e.g., atmospheric) changes on flavor perception can run into if they fail to consider the role that any overt changes in salivation may have on the effects they report. This review also highlights the fact that in commercial settings, the large baseline individual differences in salivation are likely to swamp anything that the chef/company can do to modify the salivary flow of their customers via environmental/labeling interventions.

Various studies have suggested that altering the appearance of food can impact multisensory flavor perception. The cross-modal effect of such visual changes on gustation may allow for the presentation of food tastes that are difficult to express with simple combinations of taste stimuli. This cross-modal effect of visual changes on gustation holds potential for applications in gustatory displays. However, the current limitation of existing Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) is their restricted vertical Field of View (FoV), which prohibits the display of images near the mouth while eating. This limitation may impede the cross-modal effect of visual changes on multisensory flavor perception. Additionally, the lack of visibility around the mouth area challenges the ease of eating. To address these issues, we design a Video See-Through (VST)-HMD with an expanded vertical FoV (approx. 100 [deg]). Using the HMD, we investigated how presenting visual information near the mouth affects the cross-modal effects of flavor perception and ease of eating. In our experiment, machine learning techniques were utilized to alter the appearance of food. However, the result showed no significant differences in the amount of cross-modal effects or the ease of eating between the groups with and without visual information near the mouth. As a discussion of this result, the participants may not direct their visual attention to the food when they put the food in their mouths. The experiment also examined whether visual changes alter the taste as well as the smell and texture of the food. The findings demonstrated that visual changes could present the smell and texture of the food following the modifications. This result was confirmed irrespective of the visibility near the mouth.

<b></b> Experimental psychologists, psychophysicists, food/sensory scientists, and marketers have long been interested in, and/or speculated about, what exactly the relationship, if any, might be between color and taste/flavor. While several influential early commentators argued against there being any relationship, a large body of empirical evidence published over the last 80 years or so clearly demonstrates that the hue and saturation, or intensity, of color in food and/or drink often influences multisensory flavor perception. Interestingly, the majority of this research has focused on vision's influence on the tasting experience rather than looking for any effects in the opposite direction. Recently, however, a separate body of research linking color and taste has emerged from the burgeoning literature on the crossmodal correspondences. Such correspondences, or associations, between attributes or dimensions of experience, are thought to be robustly bidirectional. When talking about the relationship between color and taste/flavor, some commentators would appear to assume that these two distinct literatures describe the same underlying empirical phenomenon. That said, a couple of important differences (in terms of the bidirectionality of the effects and their relative vs. absolute nature) are highlighted, meaning that the findings from one domain may not necessarily always be transferable to the other, as is often seemingly assumed.

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Colloquially referred to as "taste," flavor is in reality a thoroughly multisensory experience. Yet, a mechanistic understanding of the multisensory computations underlying flavor perception and food choice is lacking. Here, we used a multisensory flavor choice task in rats to test specific predictions of the statistically optimal integration framework, which has previously yielded much insight into cue integration in other multisensory systems. Our results confirm three key predictions of this framework in the unique context of flavor choice behavior, providing novel mechanistic insight into multisensory flavor processing.<b>NEW & NOTEWORTHY</b> The authors demonstrate that rats make choices about which flavor solution (i.e., taste-odor mixture) to consume by weighting the individual taste and odor components according to the reliability of the information they provide about which solution is the preferred one. A similar weighting operation underlies multisensory cue combination in other domains and offers novel insight into the computations underlying multisensory flavor perception and food choice behavior.

Abstract It is well‐known that multiple sensory cues influence flavor perception and liking. The present study aimed to combine and compare the relative influences of product‐related and contextual factors on taste perception and liking, with a focus on the perception of sweetness. Participants tasted samples of the same base fruit beverage with one of three different levels of added aroma, while the contextual cues (either visual or auditory) were displayed simultaneously using iPads. The results revealed that both added aroma and background music significantly influenced participants' sweetness ratings, with a medium level of added aroma enhancing sweetness significantly as compared to no added aroma, and with the sweet‐congruent soundtrack enhancing perceived sweetness significantly as compared to the bitter‐congruent soundtrack. Moreover, there was a potentially additive effect from the combination of aroma and soundtrack. These results are discussed in terms of potential mechanisms underlying multisensory flavor perception. Practical applications Consumers are nearly always exposed to a multisensory environment whenever they consume food and drink. It is therefore important to acknowledge that, beyond the food itself, what people happen to be exposed to in the environment while eating or drinking can influence their multisensory flavor experiences as well. These results are of relevance for those working on understanding a theoretical model of human sweetness perception, as well as those working on the design of healthier, sugar‐reduced food products. Indeed, the knowledge that multiple sensory cues can, at least under the appropriate conditions, work in conjunction to deliver a greater modulation of perceived taste will allow designers to come up with more effective sugar‐reduced products without reducing consumer satisfaction. Moreover, the increasing prevalence of sensory and augmented reality applications means that manufacturers can now incorporate external visual and auditory content as part of the total multisensory product experience.

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Abstract Background Flavor perception depends not only on the multisensory integration of the sensory inputs associated with the food or drink itself, but also on the multisensory attributes (or atmosphere) of the environment in which the food/drink is tasted. We report two experiments designed to investigate whether multisensory atmospheric cues could be used to influence the perception of a glass of whisky (that is, a complex but familiar product). The pre-test (experiment 1) was conducted in the laboratory and involved a sample of 18 participants (12 females, 5 males, and 1 who did not specify gender), while the main study (experiment 2) was conducted at a large purpose-designed whisky-tasting event held in London, and enrolled a sample of 441 participants (165 female, 250 male, and 26 who failed to specify their gender). In the main experiment, participants were exposed to three different multisensory atmospheres/rooms, and rated various attributes of the whisky (specifically the nose, the taste/flavor, and the aftertaste) in each room. Results Analysis of the data showed that each multisensory atmosphere/room exerted a significant effect on participants’ ratings of the attributes that the atmosphere/room had been designed to emphasize (namely grassiness, sweetness, and woodiness). Specifically, the whisky was rated as being significantly grassier in the Nose (‘grassy’) room, as being significantly sweeter in the Taste (‘sweet’) room, and as having a significantly woodier aftertaste in the Finish (‘woody’) room. Overall, the participants preferred the whisky when they tasted it in the Finish room. Conclusions Taken together, these results further our understanding of the significant influence that a multisensory atmosphere can have on people’s experience and/or enjoyment of a drink (in this case, a glass of whisky). The implications of these results for the future design of multisensory experiences are discussed.

ABSTRACT Does what we hear influence our perception of, and behaviors toward, food and drink? If so, what are the mechanism(s) underlying these cross‐modal effects? While many people intuitively believe that our sense of hearing has little influence on our experiences of foodstuffs, the evidence that has been published to date suggests that this is not always the case. In this article, we review the growing body of empirical research demonstrating that what we hear can affect our perception of, and responses to, food and drink. We review both laboratory‐based research and real‐world (ecological) studies of the effects of music and other auditory stimuli on people's food‐related behaviors. This research has revealed that what we hear (be it music, the sounds we make while eating, or even pure tones or bursts of white noise) can have a dramatic effect on our perceptions of food and drink. Auditory stimuli influence people's consumption rates, their preference ratings and their flavor assessments, and have even been shown to significantly impact on the overall amount that people consume. We highlight a number of explanations, including multisensory integration, attention, associative learning and expectations, that have all been put forward in order to account for these cross‐modal effects. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS This manuscript examines the relationship between what people hear and their food and drink experiences, perceptions and behaviors. In previous research, auditory cues have been shown to influence people's purchasing decisions, flavor evaluations and their consumption rates of food and drink. The multisensory approach inherent to this line of research provides a means of enhancing culinary experiences for people in the years to come. In fact, some important practical interventions have already been made. For example, the Fat Duck restaurant in Bray, England serves a “sounds of the sea” seafood dish. Those who select this dish are presented with a plate of seafood that is reminiscent of a beach, with an iPod (hidden in a seashell with the earphones poking out) that plays a “sounds of the sea” soundtrack. Innovations such as these, based on a solid understanding of the cognitive psychology and neuroscience of multisensory integration, may increasingly help to heighten our enjoyment and experience of food and drink.

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Smell plays a major role in our perception of food. Odorants released inside the mouth during consumption are combined with taste and texture qualities of a food to guide flavor preference learning and food choice behavior. Here, we built on recent physiological findings that implicated primary sensory cortex in multisensory flavor processing. Specifically, we used extracellular recordings in awake rats to characterize responses of single neurons in primary olfactory (OC) and gustatory cortex (GC) to intraoral delivery of odor solutions and compare odor responses to taste and plain water responses. The data reveal responses to olfactory, oral somatosensory, and gustatory qualities of intraoral stimuli in both OC and GC. Moreover, modality-specific responses overlap in time, indicating temporal convergence of multisensory, flavor-related inputs. The results extend previous work suggesting a role for primary OC in mediating influences of taste on smell that characterize flavor perception and point to an integral role for GC in olfactory processing.<b>NEW & NOTEWORTHY</b> Food perception is inherently multisensory, taking into account taste, smell, and texture qualities. However, the neural mechanisms underlying flavor perception remain unknown. Recording neural activity directly from the rat brain while animals consume multisensory flavor stimuli, we demonstrate that information about odor, taste, and mouthfeel of food converges on primary taste and smell cortex. The results suggest that processing of naturalistic, multisensory information involves an interacting network of primary sensory areas.

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Many consumers perceive the bitter taste or other sensory characteristic of vegetables as unpleasant, posing a challenge to dietary recommendations aiming to increase vegetable consumption. Food experience is multisensory, with complex interactions between the senses and individual differences in sensory perception. This review focuses on the factors affecting sensory properties of vegetables and sensory perception of vegetables among adults. Topical examples of sensory quality and evaluation of vegetable samples are presented. Cultivar and growing conditions are related to the internal sensory quality of vegetables. The effects of different processing methods, such as freezing and cooking, on the sensory properties of vegetables are also reviewed. Flavor modification of vegetables with seasonings may be used to improve palatability and incorporating vegetables to meals may increase the intake of vegetables. Recently, external factors (e.g. visual and odor stimuli) have been tested in multisensory research in the context of vegetable perception and choice. These options to achieve better sensory quality, more palatable meals and pleasant eating context may be used to promote vegetable intake among adults.

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Freshness perception has received recent consideration in the field of consumer science mainly because of its hedonic dimension, which is assumed to influence consumers' preference and behavior. However, most studies have considered freshness as a multisensory attribute of food and beverage products without investigating the cognitive mechanisms at hand. In the present review, we endorse a slightly different perspective on freshness. We focus on (i) the multisensory integration processes that underpin freshness perception, and (ii) the top-down factors that influence the explicit attribution of freshness to a product by consumers. To do so, we exploit the recent literature on the cognitive underpinnings of flavor perception as a heuristic to better characterize the mechanisms of freshness perception in the particular case of beverages. We argue that the lack of consideration of particular instances of flavor, such as freshness, has resulted in a lack of consensus about the content and structure of different types of flavor representations. We then enrich these theoretical analyses, with a review of the cognitive mechanisms of flavor perception: from multisensory integration processes to the influence of top-down factors (e.g., attentional and semantic). We conclude that similarly to flavor, freshness perception is characterized by hybrid content, both perceptual and semantic, but that <i>freshness</i> has a higher-degree of specificity than <i>flavor</i>. In particular, contrary to flavor, freshness is characterized by specific functions (e.g., alleviation of oropharyngeal symptoms) and likely differs from flavor with respect to the weighting of each sensory contributor, as well as to its subjective location. Finally, we provide a comprehensive model of the cognitive mechanisms that underlie freshness perception. This model paves the way for further empirical research on particular instances of flavor, and will enable advances in the field of food and beverage cognition.

The orbitofrontal cortex receives inputs from all the major sensory pathways, but olfaction is the only pathway that projects directly to it. We discuss several unique properties with which this is associated. Olfactory stimuli are converted into spatial images, varying in time, in the olfactory bulb, which are processed by the olfactory cortex for input to orbitofrontal cortex. The input from olfactory cortex to orbitofrontal cortex is mostly direct, though some fibers project through mediodorsal thalamus in some species. Studies are needed to determine the specific contributions of olfactory cortex and orbitofrontal cortex to conscious smell perception. A major challenge to the field is accounting for how conscious perception of this sense is coordinated with conscious perceptions of the other major senses, which are known to depend on thalamocortical circuits. The fact that the primary olfactory area at the neocortical level is embedded in the multisensory region of the orbitofrontal cortex indicates that at this level smell perception is heavily influenced by other senses, particularly related to food flavors through retronasal smell, which is being documented in experimental studies in rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans. Also requiring clarification is how behavioral modulation at each step of processing of the odor images is coordinated. In sum, the orbitofrontal cortex is emerging as the next frontier in understanding the neural basis of smell.

It is well known that the appearance of food, particularly its color, can influence flavor perception and identification. However, food studies involving the manipulation of product color face inevitable limitations, from extrinsic flavors introduced by food coloring to the cost in development time and resources in order to produce different product variants. One solution lies in modern virtual reality (VR) technology, which has become increasingly accessible, sophisticated, and widespread over the past years. In the present study, we investigated whether making a coffee look milkier in a VR environment can alter its perceived flavor and liking. Thirty-two United Kingdom (UK) consumers were given four samples of black cold brew coffee at 4 and 8% sucrose concentration. They wore VR headsets throughout the study and viewed the same coffee in a virtual setting. The color of the beverage was manipulated in VR, such that participants saw either a dark brown or light brown liquid as they sipped the coffee. A full factorial design was used so that each participant tasted each sweetness x color combination, Participants reported sweetness, creaminess, and liking for each sample. Results revealed that beverage color as viewed in VR significantly influenced perceived creaminess, with the light brown coffee rated to be creamier than dark brown coffee. However, beverage color did not influence perceived sweetness or liking. The present study supports the role of VR as a means of conducting food perception studies, either to gain a better understanding of multisensory integration, or, from an industry perspective, to enable rapid product testing when it may be time-intensive or costly to produce the same range of products in the real-world. Furthermore, it opens potential future opportunities for VR to promote healthy eating behavior by manipulating the visual appearance of foods.

Colour is the single most important product-intrinsic sensory cue when it comes to setting people’s expectations regarding the likely taste and flavour of food and drink. To date, a large body of laboratory research has demonstrated that changing the hue or intensity/saturation of the colour of food and beverage items can exert a sometimes dramatic impact on the expectations, and hence on the subsequent experiences, of consumers (or participants in the lab). However, should the colour not match the taste, then the result may well be a negatively valenced disconfirmation of expectation. Food colours can have rather different meanings and hence give rise to differing expectations, in different age groups, not to mention in different cultures. Genetic differences, such as in a person’s taster status, can also modulate the psychological impact of food colour on flavour perception. By gaining a better understanding of the sensory and hedonic expectations elicited by food colour in different groups of individuals, researchers are coming to understand more about why it is that what we see modulates the multisensory perception of flavour, as well as our appetitive and avoidance-related food behaviours.

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Umami taste (corresponds to savory in English) is elicited by L-glutamate, typically as its Na salt (monosodium glutamate: MSG), and is one of five basic taste qualities that plays a key role in intake of amino acids. A particular property of umami is the synergistic potentiation of glutamate by purine nucleotide monophosphates (IMP, GMP). A heterodimer of a G protein coupled receptor, TAS1R1 and TAS1R3, is proposed to function as its receptor. However, little is known about genetic variation of TAS1R1 and TAS1R3 and its potential links with individual differences in umami sensitivity. Here we investigated the association between recognition thresholds for umami substances and genetic variations in human TAS1R1 and TAS1R3, and the functions of TAS1R1/TAS1R3 variants using a heterologous expression system. Our study demonstrated that the TAS1R1-372T creates a more sensitive umami receptor than -372A, while TAS1R3-757C creates a less sensitive one than -757R for MSG and MSG plus IMP, and showed a strong correlation between the recognition thresholds and in vitro dose-response relationships. These results in human studies support the propositions that a TAS1R1/TAS1R3 heterodimer acts as an umami receptor, and that genetic variation in this heterodimer directly affects umami taste sensitivity.

There is growing interest in relating taste perception to diet and healthy aging. However, there is still limited information on the influence of age, sex and genetics on taste acuity as well as on the relationship between taste perception and taste preferences. We have analysed the influence of age on the intensity rating of the five basic tastes: sweet, salty, bitter, sour and umami (separately and jointly in a "total taste score") and their modulation by sex and genetics in a relatively healthy population (men and women) aged 18⁻80 years (<i>n</i> = 1020 Caucasian European participants). Taste perception was determined by challenging subjects with solutions of the five basic tastes using standard prototypical tastants (6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), NaCl, sucrose, monopotassium glutamate and citric acid) at 5 increasing concentrations (I to V). We also measured taste preferences and determined the polymorphisms of the genes taste 2 receptor member 38 (TAS2R38), taste 1 receptor member 2 (TAS2R38) and sodium channel epithelial 1 beta subunit (SCNN1B), as TAS2R38-rs713598, TAS1R2-rs35874116 and SCNN1B-rs239345 respectively. We found a statistically significant decrease in taste perception ("total taste score") with increasing age for all the concentrations analysed. This association was stronger for the higher concentrations (<i>p</i> = 0.028; <i>p</i> = 0.012; <i>p</i> = 0.005; <i>p</i> = 4.20 × 10^-5 and <i>p</i> = 1.48 × 10^-7, for I to V in the multivariable-adjusted models). When we analysed taste qualities (using concentration V), the intensity rating of all the 5 tastes was diminished with age (<i>p <</i> 0.05 for all). This inverse association differed depending on the test quality, being higher for bitter (PROP) and sour. Women perceived taste significantly more intense than men (<i>p</i> = 1.4 × 10^-8 for total taste score). However, there were differences depending on the taste, umami being the lowest (<i>p</i> = 0.069). There was a complex association between the ability to perceive a taste and the preference for the same. Significant associations were, nevertheless, found between a higher perception of sour taste and a higher preference for it in women. In contrast, the higher perception of sweet was significantly associated with a higher preference for bitter in both, men and women. The TAS2R38-rs713598 was strongly associated with bitter (PROP) taste (<i>p</i> = 1.38 × 10^-50), having a significant interaction with sex (<i>p</i> = 0.030). The TAS1R2-rs35874116 was not significantly associated with sweet, whereas the SCNN1B-rs239345 was associated (<i>p</i> = 0.040) with salty taste. In conclusion, the inverse association between age and perceived taste intensity as well as the additional influence of sex and some genetic polymorphisms give rise to large inter-individual differences in taste perception and taste preferences that should be taken into account in future studies and for applications in precision nutrition for healthy aging.

Taste is influenced by several factors. However, whether habitual exercise level is associated with differences in taste perception has received little investigation. The aim of this study was to determine if habitual exercise is associated with differences in taste perception in men. Active (<i>n</i> = 16) and inactive (<i>n</i> = 14) males, between ages 18⁻55, underwent two days of sensory testing, using prototypical taste stimuli of high and low concentrations for sweet, salt, bitter, sour, umami, and carbohydrate (maltodextrin). Mean perceived intensity and hedonic ratings were recorded. Eating behaviour was assessed by the three factor eating questionnaire and food intake by EPIC food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). There were moderate to large differences between the two groups in perceived intensity for sweet taste at the high concentration and umami taste at both high and low concentrations, with active males recording a higher perceived intensity (<i>p</i> < 0.05 for all). The active group also recorded a greater dislike for umami low and carbohydrate low concentration (<i>p</i> < 0.01). Salt, bitter and sour perception did not significantly differ between the two groups. FFQ analysis showed no difference in % energy from macronutrients between the groups. Eating behaviour traits correlated with sweet taste intensity and umami taste liking, independent of activity status. Results indicated that sweet and umami taste perception differ in active compared to inactive males. Habitual exercise level should be considered in taste perception research and in product development. Whether differences in taste perception could be one factor influencing food intake and thus energy balance with habitual exercise warrants further investigation.

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Sensory systems define an animal's capacity for perception and can evolve to promote survival in new environmental niches. We have uncovered a noncanonical mechanism for sweet taste perception that evolved in hummingbirds since their divergence from insectivorous swifts, their closest relatives. We observed the widespread absence in birds of an essential subunit (T1R2) of the only known vertebrate sweet receptor, raising questions about how specialized nectar feeders such as hummingbirds sense sugars. Receptor expression studies revealed that the ancestral umami receptor (the T1R1-T1R3 heterodimer) was repurposed in hummingbirds to function as a carbohydrate receptor. Furthermore, the molecular recognition properties of T1R1-T1R3 guided taste behavior in captive and wild hummingbirds. We propose that changing taste receptor function enabled hummingbirds to perceive and use nectar, facilitating the massive radiation of hummingbird species.

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Behavioral reaction to different taste qualities affects nutritional status and health. 6-<i>n</i>-Propylthiouracil (PROP) tasting has been reported to be a marker of variation in taste perception, food preferences, and eating behavior, but results have been inconsistent. We showed that l-Arg can enhance the bitterness intensity of PROP, whilst others have demonstrated a suppression of the bitterness of quinine. Here, we analyze the taste perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami and the modifications caused by l-Arg supplementation, as a function of PROP-taster status. Taste perception was assessed by testing the ability to recognize, and the responsiveness to, representative solutions of the five primary taste qualities, also when supplemented with l-Arg, in subjects classified as PROP-tasting. Super-tasters, who showed high papilla density, gave higher ratings to sucrose, citric acid, caffeine, and monosodium l-glutamate than non-tasters. l-Arg supplementation mainly modified sucrose perception, enhanced the umami taste, increased NaCl saltiness and caffeine bitterness only in tasters, and decreased citric acid sourness. Our findings confirm the role of PROP phenotype in the taste perception of sweet, sour, and bitter and show its role in umami. The results suggest that l-Arg could be used as a strategic tool to specifically modify taste responses related to eating behaviors.

This study endeavored to high-throughput identify umami peptides from pork bone. Pork bone protein extracts were hydrolyzed using proteinase K and papain, enzymes selected through computational proteolysis of pork type I collagen under the controlled conditions predicted by umami intensity-guided response surface analysis. Peptide sequences (GVNAMLRK, HWDRSNWF, PGRGCPGN, NLRDNYRF, PGWETYRK, GPGCKAGL, VAQWRKCL, GPTAANRM) in hydrolysates were virtually screened as potential umami peptides. Sensory evaluation confirmed that six of these peptides demonstrate a progressive increase in umami intensity. Molecular docking revealed that hydrophilic amino acids in umami peptides predominantly formed hydrogen bonds with T1R1/T1R3. Specifically, residues Thr, Asn, Lys, Ser and Glu of peptides mainly interacted with Ser107/148/276 of T1R1, and residues Tyr, Arg and Asp played crucial roles in binding to the Ser104/146 and His145 of T1R3. This study offers insights into the high-value utilization of pork bones and guides the development of umami peptides in various food proteins.

Abstract Preference for amino acids can take two basic forms. The first may be associated with dietary deficiencies of specific essential amino acids and would be expected to favor the ingestion of that particular amino acid. This preference would disappear once the deficiency was corrected. The other type may bear some resemblance to changes in preference for sweet, salty, and umami taste solutions during nutritional manipulation of basic macro‐ or micronutrient substitutes such as carbohydrates, proteins, or minerals. These preferences would depend upon the specific nutrient imbalance. Although many studies have examined taste preference changes following manipulations in micronutrient status, very few have examined taste preference changes following alterations in the quality or quantity of dietary protein due to maintenance of amino acids homeostasis and adaptation to various states of protein nutrition. Data from our studies using a bovine circumvallate preparation suggest the following: 1) the biochemical mechanism of umami taste synergism between L‐glutamate and 5'‐ribonucleotides involves specific glutamate binding to the bovine circumvallate preparation and is enhanced by the presence of 5'‐ribonu‐cleotides such as GMP and IMP; 2) rats not suffering from protein deficiency preferred the umami taste. Rats during a state of protein deficiencies preferred the taste of NaCl; 3) recognition of an essential amino acid, (i.e., L‐lysine) deficiency is registered in both the feeding and the satiety centers (lateral hypothalamic area and the ventromedial hypothalamus). A few umami taste‐sensitive brain neurons capable of recognizing the deficiency and its particular taste during ingestion play a very important role in controlling its quantitative ingestion. These data indicate that the umami taste‐sensitive neuron in the brain may serve as an indicator of dietary protein status. A preference for umami taste indicates a normal protein diet and a rejection of umami taste indicates that an essential amino acid is needed to recover from protein malnutrition.

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The domestic cat (Felis catus) is an obligate carnivore, and as such has a meat-based diet. Several studies on the taste perception of cats have been reported, indicating that their sense of taste has evolved based on their carnivorous diet. Here, we propose that umami (mediated by Tas1r1-Tas1r3) is the main appetitive taste modality for the domestic cat by characterizing the umami taste of a range of nucleotides, amino acids, and their mixtures for cats obtained using complementary methods. We show for the first time that cats express Tas1r1 in taste papillae. The cat umami receptor responds to a range of nucleotides as agonists, with the purine nucleotides having the highest activity. Their umami receptor does not respond to any amino acids alone; however, 11 l-amino acids with a range of chemical characteristics act as enhancers in combination with a nucleotide. l-Glutamic acid and l-Aspartic acid are not active as either agonists or enhancers of the cat umami receptor due to changes in key binding residues at positions 170 and 302. Overall, cats have an appetitive behavioral response for nucleotides, l-amino acids, and their mixtures. We postulate that the renowned palatability of tuna for cats may be due, at least in part, to its specific combination of high levels of inosine monophosphate and free l-Histidine that produces a strong synergistic umami taste enhancement. These results demonstrate the critical role that the umami receptor plays in enabling cats to detect key taste compounds present in meat.

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Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) is one of the important calcium channels expressed in the endoplasmic reticulum and has been shown to play crucial roles in various physiological phenomena. Type 3 IP3R is expressed in taste cells, but the physiological relevance of this receptor in taste perception in vivo is still unknown. Here, we show that mice lacking IP3R3 show abnormal behavioral and electrophysiological responses to sweet, umami, and bitter substances that trigger G-protein-coupled receptor activation. In contrast, responses to salty and acid tastes are largely normal in the mutant mice. We conclude that IP3R3 is a principal mediator of sweet, bitter, and umami taste perception and would be a missing molecule linking phospholipase C beta2 to TRPM5 activation.

The research on the umami receptor-ligand interaction is crucial for understanding umami perception. This study integrated molecular simulations, sensory evaluation, and biosensor technology to analyze the interaction between umami peptides and the umami receptor T1R1/T1R3-VFT. Molecular dynamics simulations were used to investigate the dissociation process of seven umami peptides with the umami receptor T1R1/T1R3-VFT, and by calculating the potential mean force curve using the Jarzynski equation, it was found that the binding free energy of umami peptide is between -58.80 and -12.17 kcal/mol, which had a strong correlation with the umami intensity obtained by time intensity sensory evaluation. Through correlation analysis, the dissociation rate constants (0.0126-0.394 1/s) of umami peptides were found to have a great impact on umami perception. The faster the dissociation rate of umami peptides from receptors, the stronger the perceived intensity of the umami taste. This research aims to elucidate the relationship between the umami peptide-receptor interaction and umami perception, providing theoretical support for the exploration of umami perception mechanisms.

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Sweet and umami tastes are elicited by sweet and umami receptors on the tongue and palate epithelium, respectively. However, the molecular machinery allowing the taste reaction remains incompletely understood. Through a phosphoproteomic approach, we identified the key proteins that trigger taste mechanisms based on phosphorylation cascades. Ryanodine receptor isoform 1 (RYR1) was further verified by sensory and behavioral assays. We propose a model of RYR1-mediated sweet/umami signaling in which the RYR1 channel, which mediates Ca²⁺ release from the endoplasmic reticulum, is closed by dephosphorylation in bud tissue after sweet/umami treatment. The alteration in Ca²⁺ content in the cytosol induces transient membrane depolarization and generates a cell current for taste signal transduction. We demonstrate that RYR1 is a new channel involved in the regulation of sweet/umami signal transduction and propose a "metabolic clock" notion based on sweet/umami sensing. Our study provides a valuable foundation for a system-level understanding of the taste perception mechanism.

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Background: Reducing the dietary sodium intake is one of the most important factors for controlling blood pressure. The changes that occur in perceiving saltiness and umami tastes in people with hypertension can be associated with the level of sodium intake. The aim of this study was to investigate the gustatory perception of these two tastes in patients with hypertension and its association with the level of dietary sodium consumed by these patients. Material and methods: In this case control study, 40 patients with hypertension and 40 healthy individuals were chosen. The blood pressure was measured for both groups. The power of perceiving saltiness and umami tastes was investigated using sodium chloride and monosodium glutamate solutions respectively both with concentrations of 200 mmol/lit. The individuals specified the power of each taste along a 10-number criterion. Based on the compounds of foods in Iran, the level of sodium consumed per day was calculated by food frequency questionnaire. The data were analyzed by Mann-Whitney, Pearson, Spearman tests. Results: The mean saltiness perception in the control and case group was 5/8 and 6/6 respectively(p &lt; 0/05) and the mean umami perception the control and case group was 5/5 and 7/6 respectively (p &lt; 0/05). There was an inverse relationship between the level of sodium intake and perceived intensity of saltiness perceptionin case group (p &lt; 0.05).The level of sodium intake had no relationship with perceived intensity of umami taste in none of the groups (p &gt; 0.05). There was also a direct relationship between blood pressure and intensity of perceiving umami taste in case group (p &lt; 0.05).However, no significant relationship was found between blood pressure and the intensity of perceiving saltiness (p &gt; 0.05). Conclusion: Perceived intensity of saltiness perception in case group higher than control group also perceived intensity of umami perception in case group higher than control group. With increase in the blood pressure, the power of perceiving saltiness and umami increases; with increase in sodium intake, saltiness perception diminishes, but umami perception is left unaffected.

The addition of natural umami-containing ingredients during the cooking of meat can provide enhanced umami and salty taste characteristics. This can lead to increased liking by some consumers, particularly those with raised taste detection thresholds.

Inhalant abuse constitutes an important public health problem in Mexico that is more prevalent among children and adolescents. Commercial products that are abused are complex mixtures of solvents containing mainly toluene, in association with other solvents like benzene and xylene. Epidemiological evidence indicates that chronic solvent abuse exposure can cause loss of appetite among other unwanted effects. The mechanisms by which loss of appetite is produced are unknown. It is a matter of interest to determine if loss of appetite is related to changes in taste perception. One of the basic flavors detected by the taste system is umami taste (monosodium glutamate) and it has been proposed that glutamatergic receptors can play an important role in umami taste transduction and perception. It is unknown however, if chronic solvent abuse exposure can induce alterations in umami taste perception. The purpose of this work was to determine if chronic solvent exposure in rats causes alterations in glutamate solution consumption. Rats were exposed to solvents (6000 ppm) in a static chamber for 2 months, as follows: a toluene group, a benzene group, a xylene group and a control group. During the treatment, glutamate solution (120 mM) consumption, food intake and rat weights were measured. The results show that glutamate solution intake was increased in rats chronically exposed to solvents, with differences in consumption patterns between solvents. In addition, chronically exposed animals had a lower weight increase compared with unexposed rats. These data suggest that solvent inhalation originates feeding behavior alteration in rats.

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ABSTRACT The aim of this research project was to investigate umami taste properties of recipes based on Italian culinary tradition and prepared with umami‐rich ingredients, focusing on the impact of the preparation and ingredient combination. Gustative profiles were prepared for a traditional Italian dish, tender beef bouillon, usually consumed with pasta stuffed with beef. Four different samples were designed by changing the ingredients (with or without integrating Parmigiano cheese) and the preparation (cooking time) of the recipe. Panelists were rigorously trained for umami taste evaluation using monosodium L‐glutamate (MSG) aqueous solutions and were then asked to evaluate umami sensation in tender beef bouillon with or without added Parmigiano Reggiano . A majority of the panelists were able to distinguish correctly umami sensations induced by MSG. The level of umami enhancement induced by Parmigiano Reggiano was clearly perceived by the panelists, and this enhancement positively affected also other basic tastes; whereas the cooking time had no clear effect on the gustative perception. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS In western countries, people do not know much about umami. This taste is defined as the “savoriness” of the glutamate. Umami‐taste substances are present in several foods, but whereas the taste of monosodium glutamate and 5′ nucleotides can be without difficulty identified in water solutions, which are usually employed for panel training, the ability to identify this primary taste decreases enormously in more complex matrices like food. This study describes a procedure for screening and training sensory panels and could serve as a guide in teaching panelists to recognize and quantify the umami taste in a multistimuli matrix like a food recipe or product. It also provides a practical application in a recipe in which the umami taste is modulated by the culinary preparation and ingredients.

Abstract The prevalence of hypertension in South Kalimantan based on the health development program in 2018 reached 44.1%, which means South Kalimantan is the province with the highest prevalence of hypertension in Indonesia. Excessive consumption of salt (sodium) can cause a direct impact on blood pressure: people with high levels of salt consumption have an increase in blood pressure. Efforts to reduce salt consumption must also pay attention to the level of acceptance by consumers. Seasoning reformulation should maintain the product taste. Among various seasoning reformulation technologies are reducing salt particle size and blending salt with other ingredients as a flavor enhancer. This study aimed to determine the roles of salt (NaCl) size and the addition of the Nagara bean tempeh flour and oyster mushroom formulation in enhancing the umami taste to reduce salt use. Reducing the salt particle size down to 100 mesh had not given any significant effect yet on the strengthening of the perception of salty and umami taste. On the other hand, the formulation of Nagara bean tempeh flour and white oyster mushroom in a ratio of 100:0 could give a strong perception of umami taste to the seasoning powder, which was no different from the formulation in a ratio of 90:10. In conclusion, the glutamate component contained in Nagara bean tempeh flour can be an alternative source of good umami taste.

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By human sensory analyses, we found that various extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) agonists enhance sweet, salty, and umami tastes, although they have no taste themselves. These characteristics are known as "kokumi taste" and often appear in traditional Japanese cuisine. Although GSH is a typical kokumi taste substance (taste enhancer), its mode of action is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate how the kokumi taste is enhanced by the CaSR, a close relative of the class C G-protein-coupled receptors T1R1, T1R2, and T1R3 (sweet and umami receptors). We identified a large number of CaSR agonist gamma-glutamyl peptides, including GSH (gamma-Glu-Cys-Gly) and gamma-Glu-Val-Gly, and showed that these peptides elicit the kokumi taste. Further analyses revealed that some known CaSR agonists such as Ca(2+), protamine, polylysine, L-histidine, and cinacalcet (a calcium-mimetic drug) also elicit the kokumi taste and that the CaSR-specific antagonist, NPS-2143, significantly suppresses the kokumi taste. This is the first report indicating a distinct function of the CaSR in human taste perception.

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PD patients have dysgeusia for all five tastes, including umami, which affects their appetite and diet. Patients preferred sweet, salty and umami tastes. This information can help adjust patients' diets to improve their nutritional status.

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The aims of this study were (1) to map sensory attributes of vanilla ice cream with reduced fat and sugar, and (2) to determine drivers of liking by applying external preference mapping and reveal the relationship between descriptive attributes and hedonic judgments using the partial least squares method. Descriptive sensory profiles (n=11) and consumer test (n=117) of 6 samples of vanilla ice cream (3 traditional and 3 with reduced fat and sugar) were determined. The attributes brightness and sweet aftertaste for sample and creaminess (appearance and texture) and sweet aroma contributed positively to the acceptance of ice cream samples. The attributes aeration, powdered milk aroma and flavor, and white chocolate aroma and flavor contributed positively to the acceptance of the ice creams. The attributes hydrogenated fat aroma and flavor were responsible for the lower acceptance of samples. The reduction in fat and sugar did not necessarily cause a decrease in acceptance. The most important factors were selection of the appropriate sweetener system and the use of good quality raw material.

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ABSTRACT: Sensory properties are important elements to evaluate the qualities of vegetable products and are also determinant factors in purchasing decision. Here we report the Italian results of a preference mapping study conducted within a larger European project with the aim of describing the preferences of European consumers in regard to the diversity of traditional and modern tomato varieties, available on the market. This study has allowed the assessment of fruit quality at 3 levels: objective description of sensory properties, consumer preference tests, and physicochemical measurements. A set of 16 tomato cultivars, with different fruit sizes and shapes, was described and classified according to 18 sensory attributes including flavor, appearance, and texture characteristics. The same cultivars were evaluated by 179 consumers in a “preference mapping” experiment with the goal of identifying the preferred varieties and the reasons for the choice. The consumer data are referred to hedonic ratings (aspect liking and overall liking), familiarity for the analyzed cultivars, and individual features collected by a questionnaire. A hierarchical analysis of the clusters allowed to distinguish, within the sampled Italian consumers, 4 segments with different preferences which represented 19%, 25%, 41%, and 15% of the population, respectively. A partial least square regression model allowed the identification of the sensory attributes that best described consumer cluster preferences for tomato cultivars. Both texture and flavor descriptors were important drivers of consumer preferences, but the relevance (predictive value) of individual descriptors to model tomato liking was different for each consumer segment. Information on demographic and behavioral characteristics, usage habits, and factors relevant for purchasing were also provided on the 4 groups of consumers.

Abstract The main objective of this study was the sensory characterization, by a taste and a consumers’ panel, of fresh sausages from 140 culled goats and 140 culled ewes. Species and type of preparation effects were studied. All data were previously analyzed by analysis of variance. Taste panel data were analyzed by a Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA). Consumers’ panel data were analyzed by Preference Mapping. The 1st 2 factors explained 88.22% of total variation in GPA. Different sausages samples were perfectly differentiated by assessors. Goat sausages have been considered harder, more fibrous, and less juicy than sheep sausages. The panelists observed that sheep sausages without paprika had greater intensity of flavor, tasted spicy, and had an off‐odor, while goat sausages with paprika were considered sweeter. Consumers’ panel did not show any preference for the different types of sausages. This means that all types of sausages can have market opportunity.

ABSTRACT: A trained sensory panel rated 8 muesli oat flakes—6 experimental (with 3 thickness levels and 2 heat treatments) and 2 commercial (regular and organic)—as such or with milk for attribute intensities; and 3 consumer groups–young adults, 18 to 25 y; adults, 35 to 49; elderly, 58 to 85—rated the same oat flakes for preference. To appeal to the majority of the consumers, the flakes should not adhere to teeth and should not need too much mastication. In addition, large enough milk absorption is preferred. The elderly preferred an easy eating experience more than the younger consumers. Thus, it is important to recognize that different types of muesli appeal to different consumer segments.

This study aimed to establish a consumer quality standard for Camembert‐type cheeses, combining chemical analysis, sensory profile, CATA (Check‐All‐That‐Apply), preference mapping and chemometrics. The cheeses were manufactured using three different cultures (‘O’ mesophilic homofermentative; ‘T’ thermophilic and ‘LD’ mesophilic heterofermentative) and assessed at different ripening times (14, 21 and 28 days). The results showed a clear separation between consumers, with a higher number preferring the LD‐type cheeses. The use of different sensory methods clarifies the consumers' choice regarding the cheese, with CATA proving to be an effective, low‐cost method for characterisation of the cheeses, with the cheese made with LD‐type culture the most accepted. These results show that this methodology can be used to develop consumer acceptable products through the standardisation of the manufacturing protocol.

The sensory profile and acceptance of cookies enriched with medicinal herbs mixture “Vitalplant,” aimed at body weight regulation and metabolism enhancement, were evaluated. Seven cookies were prepared varying the content of powder and extract mixture (0, 2, 4, and 6 g/100 g flour basis, respectively). The descriptors used by an expert sensory panel (n = 8) that best separated samples were: appearance (shape, uniformity, surface, and color), texture (structure break, firmness, and chewiness), odor, and flavor. Preference mapping was assessed using multidimensional scaling on data obtained through an acceptability test (n = 64) with a 5-point hedonic scale. The hedonic responses showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the cookies. The first three principal components captured 70.90% of the total variance, indicating the complex structure in consumer preference patterns. External preference mapping showed potential for predicting consumers overall acceptance of the cookies using five descriptive attributes that drove the preference of the six consumer clusters. The vector model was selected as the model of choice for most clusters. The addition of medicinal herbs in cookies is feasible, based on the sensory results, which may facilitate marketing of functional food with sensorial qualities equivalent to conventional products.

Abstract The technique of generalised Procrustes analysis was applied to laboratory panel assessments of appearance, texture and aroma properties of ten commercial variants of tinned cat food. These assessments were made using free‐choice profiling and were compared with results obtained from a subsequent fixed‐choice profiling experiment. A consumer trial was also performed in a local supermarket to collect preference scores for the cat food, and these scores were related to the laboratory assessments using preference mapping. These techniques can be used by product developers to ascertain the properties of meat products that are important in determining consumer preference.

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Descriptive sensory characteristics, consumer liking and preference mapping of solar dried mango cv Dodo wereinvestigated in this study . Three solar drying methods solar cabinet direct dryer (CDD), cabinet mixed-mode dryer (CMD) and Tunnel dryer (TD) were used to dry mango samples while fresh sample was used as control. Descriptive sensory analysis was performed by 15 trained panelists who used 6 descriptors to quantitatively describe the sensory characteristics of mango samples while 78 consumers were used to assess the degree of liking of products’ sensory attributes using nine-point hedonic scale. External preference mapping was performed by relating sensory data with hedonic responses. Randomized complete block research design with panelists and samples as main principal factors was used. The results showed significant differences (p<0.05) in mean intensity scores of whiteness, hardness and sweetness attributes with dried samples having higher values than their fresh counterparts. Fresh sample had significantly (p<0.05) higher colour intensity score than dried samples. The consumer study showed that, with exception of taste attribute, consumers showed significant (p<0.05) differences in colour, texture, mouth feel and overall acceptability with fresh samples having higher values than dried counterparts. Moreover, the preference mapping results showed colour and acidity (flavour) attributes to be the main driver for positive consumer preference for fresh samples. Among the drying methods, tunnel dryer showed a relatively close relationship with these attributes than cabinet dryers. In conclusion, solar drying has significant effect on sensory attributes of dried mango especially colour and flavour which is also dependent on the drying method employed. Therefore, selection of appropriate drying method which will retain these attributes is of greater importance for consumer acceptability and marketability. Keywords : Mango, Sensory, Descriptive, Consumer, Preference Mapping

Non-grapefruits with unique sensory properties and potential health benefits provide added value to fruit wine production. This study aimed to explore consumers' fruit wine preferences and descriptors for the varied fruit wines. First, 234 consumers participated in an online survey concerning their preferences for different wines (grape, blueberry, hawthorn, goji, <i>Rosa roxburghii</i>, and apricot). In addition, their attitudes towards general health interests, food neophobia, alcoholic drinks, and sweetness were collected. Grape wine and blueberry wine were the most favored wines, and goji wine was the least liked fruit wine sample. Moreover, 89 consumers were invited to evaluate 10 commercial fruit wines by using partial projective mapping based on appearance, aroma, and flavor (including taste and mouthfeel) to obtain a comprehensive sensory characterization. Multifactor analysis results showed that consumers could differentiate the fruit wines. Participants preferred fruit wines with "sweet", "sour", and "balanced fragrance", whereas "bitter", "astringent", "deep appearance", and "medicinal fragrance" were not preferred. Attitudes toward health, food neophobia, alcohol, and sweetness had less influence than taste and aroma (sensory attributes) on the preferences for fruit wine products. More frequent self-reported wine usage resulted in higher consumption frequency and liking ratings compared to non-users. Overall, the main factors influencing consumer preference for fruit wines were the sensory characteristics of the products, especially the taste.

A sensory profile and acceptability test of nine commercial brands of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilarie) were carried out. The descriptors used by a trained sensory panel that best separated brands were: stick and leaf size, stick and leaf size uniformity, quantity ofsticks and quantity of dust, included in the appearance of the dry yerba; sediment, turbidity and brown colour that corresponded to appearance of the infusion; and initial impact, acid, humid, smoke, paper, chemical, green, toasted and residual, for aroma and flavour. A total of 106 consumers (half men, half women) tested overall acceptance of the 9 brands in a home location test. Average overall acceptance scores for the 9 samples ranged from 42 to 63 on a 0–100 non-structured scale with an LSD of 8. Gender did not influence consumer acceptability forthe different yerba mate brands. Based on overall acceptance consumers were clustered into five groups. Extended internal preference mapping showed the descriptors of yerba mate that drovethe preference of some of the consumers clusters. Both appearance and aroma/flavour descriptors were correlated to preference dimensions.

This study applied quantitative descriptive analysis, hedonic test, and preference mapping techniques to investigate the sensory profile, consumer acceptability, and drivers for consumer acceptability of cassava-chia seeds composite porridge samples. Chia seeds flour was developed and blended with cassava flour at varying proportions (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%) to make six composite porridges labelled CF, CCSF1, CCSF2, CCSF3, CCSF4, and CCSF5. The control cassava porridge (CF) formulation had significantly (p <0.05) higher sweetness and aroma intensities than the composite formulations. Conversely, the CCSF4 (20%) and CCSF5 (25%) composite formulations had significantly (p < 0.05) higher colour, mouthfeel, and oiliness intensities than the control formulation (CF). Furthermore, when compared to cassava porridge, the overall acceptability of composite porridge samples was significantly (p <0.05) much greater. Consumer preference for CCSF5 was much greater than for CF, although sample CCSF5 did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) from other composite porridge blends (sample CCSF1, CCSF3, and CCSF4). Consumer preferences for porridge formulations were largely driven by colour, texture, and oiliness attributes. Thus, mixing up to 25% chia seeds flour with cassava flour produces a composite porridge with enhanced sensory properties and, hence, more consumer appeal than non-mixed cassava porridge. Significantly, this study creates an opportunity for small to large-scale food processors to valorise cassava flour by producing cassava-chia seeds composite flour to benefit the broader population in terms of food security and nutritional enhancement.

The cider industry has experienced recent growth within the USA and Virginia in particular. However, the sensory characteristics and drivers of consumer acceptance of ciders are largely uncharacterized. Therefore, this work describes the sensory profiles of commercial Virginia ciders and links these to consumer acceptance. In study 1, a descriptive analysis (DA) of 24 representative ciders from 16 producers in Virginia was conducted: six panelists defined 48 descriptive terms for ciders. In study 2, a consumer acceptance study was conducted on eight ciders from the DA with 67 subjects. For the DA study, 22 descriptors were found to be significant, and multivariate analyses identified six groups. In the consumer study, external preference mapping was conducted to identify three clusters of consumers with distinctive patterns of sensor preference. The largest cluster favored sweet ciders without off-flavors; a second, smaller cluster favored sweetness even in the presence of off-flavors; and the smallest cluster disliked sweetness in ciders and was intolerant of off-flavors. These groups’ demographic and consumption profiles are described. All ciders’ basic chemistry was within previously reported ranges and expected relationships between flavor and chemistry were observed. We were able to establish sensory profiles for Virginia ciders and to tentatively link sensory profiles and consumer acceptance. Overall, this work adds to a small-but-growing body of knowledge about ciders’ sensory properties. Producers can use the sensory profiles in comparison to other regions’ ciders to establish regional sensory profiles and the consumer preference map to understand how to capitalize on their ciders’ distinct profiles.

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Dysphagia is a dysfunction of the swallowing system and thickened beverages are widely prescribed as a treatment. The objective of this study was to determine the sensory characteristics of pre-thickened water products and determine sensory drivers of liking for those types of products. Pre-thickened water products (two starch-based and two gum-based) were tested in both nectar and honey thick versions. Based on product availability, one product was neutral water, and the others were water with lemon flavoring added. The sensory characteristics of the products were evaluated with a highly trained descriptive panel, and the viscosity of the products was evaluated with both the Bostwick consistometer and the line spread test. Previously published consumer data was used to determine preference maps with the descriptive data. All lemon-flavored products had similar flavor characteristics, except the Thick &amp; Easy Clear that had a less lemon-related flavor than the others. After excluding the lemon-related flavor characteristics, all pre-thickened products had similar “base flavor” notes, no matter whether the products were starch-based or gum-based. This contrasts with literature, which reports differences in flavor of thickened beverages prepared using thickening agents. The thickness of the products varied between nectar and honey thickness, but also varied among products that were stated to be at the same level of thickness. External preference mapping showed that both lemon-related flavor and a thinner beverage texture are potential drivers of consumers acceptance of the product, which was expected based on other studies. In conclusion, pre-thickened beverages are good alternatives for self-mixed thickening agents but a standard for thickness should be agreed on and used by manufacturers.

ABSTRACT Check‐all‐that‐apply (CATA) questions could be a simple alternative to get an insight on consumer perception of a food product. In the present work, CATA questions were used in the development of chocolate milk desserts. Nine chocolate milk desserts were formulated with different sugar and cacao concentration. A consumer study was performed with 70 people, who were asked to score their overall liking and to answer a CATA question that included 18 sensory and hedonic terms. Besides, the samples were evaluated by a trained assessors' panel. Highly significant differences were found in the frequencies in which CATA terms were used for describing the nine desserts, suggesting that this methodology was able to detect differences in consumer perception of the desserts. Sample configuration from consumers' CATA counts and trained assessors data were similar, suggesting a good agreement between both evaluations. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The use of a CATA question resulted in a simple and valid approach to gather information about consumers' perception of the product, including both their sensory and hedonic impression. This methodology enabled the direct identification of drivers of liking for groups of consumers with different preference patterns. Considering results from the present study, the use of CATA questions could be an interesting methodology to obtain a sensory map based only on consumer perception of the products and to perform external preference mapping when a sensory trained panel is not available.

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SensoMaker is a free software for data analysis from sensory studies, which has modules with user-friendly interface. Data acquisition can be performed using different methods, such as category scale, linear scale, temporal dominance of sensations (TDS), and time-intensity (TI). Results can be analyzed by a variety of methods, such as conventional internal and external preference mapping, three-way internal and external preference mapping, principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, TDS and TI curves, in addition to Tukey and Dunnett tests. High quality graphics are easily obtained and exported to several formats. The software is useful during the development or improvement of products, when it is important to carefully note consumer preferences and to relate it to descriptive characteristics in order to ensure good product acceptance.

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Dulce de leche samples available in the Brazilian market were submitted to sensory profiling by quantitative descriptive analysis and acceptance test, as well sensory evaluation using the just-about-right scale and purchase intent. External preference mapping and the ideal sensory characteristics of dulce de leche were determined. The results were also evaluated by principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, partial least squares regression, artificial neural networks, and logistic regression. Overall, significant product acceptance was related to intermediate scores of the sensory attributes in the descriptive test, and this trend was observed even after consumer segmentation. The results obtained by sensometric techniques showed that optimizing an ideal dulce de leche from the sensory standpoint is a multidimensional process, with necessary adjustments on the appearance, aroma, taste, and texture attributes of the product for better consumer acceptance and purchase. The optimum dulce de leche was characterized by high scores for the attributes sweet taste, caramel taste, brightness, color, and caramel aroma in accordance with the preference mapping findings. In industrial terms, this means changing the parameters used in the thermal treatment and quantitative changes in the ingredients used in formulations.

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ABSTRACT: The dairy beverage market is a competitive and growing category in the food industry. Within this arena, chocolate milks vary widely in flavor, color, and viscosity. Understanding what sensory properties drive consumer liking is critical for maximum market share. This study was conducted to identify and define sensory characteristics of commercial chocolate milks and to link these differences to consumer preferences through the application of internal and external preference mapping. A sensory language was identified to document the sensory properties (visual, flavor, mouthfeel) of chocolate milks. Twenty‐eight commercial chocolate milks were subsequently evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis using the identified sensory language. Thirteen representative milks were chosen for consumer acceptance testing followed by internal and external preference mapping to identify key drivers. Instrumental color and viscosity measurements were also taken. Two different techniques were used for external preference mapping: cluster analysis with generalized procrustes analysis and landscape segmentation analysis. Chocolate milks were differentiated by descriptive sensory analysis ( P &lt; 0.001). Wide variability was also observed in consumer acceptability of chocolate milks ( P &lt; 0.001). Correlations were observed among descriptive and consumer, descriptive and instrumental, and instrumental and consumer results ( P &lt; 0.001). Generalized procrustes analysis revealed 2 groups of consumers with 1 nondistinguishing driver of liking: cocoa aroma. Landscape segmentation analysis confirmed and clarified generalized procrustes analysis results by identifying 3 consumer segments with 3 drivers: cocoa aroma, malty, and cooked/eggy flavors.

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The present article reviews research about the psychological determinants of human eating behavior. A hypothetical model of food choice and intake is introduced, presenting various factors influencing eating behavior. Internal factors include sensory food aspects. Among the external factors are information, the social context and the physical environment. Processes such as mere exposure, Pavlovian conditioning and social learning shape the relationships between these factors, food liking and eating behavior. The relative contribution of the various determinants is discussed. In spite of a scarcity of studies, liking for the sensory aspects of food seems to be at the center of the development, maintenance and change of dietary patterns. Consequently, efforts for promoting healthy eating behavior might benefit from an increased attention towards learning principles and food likes in the development of interventions. Existing intervention strategies are criticized and preliminary suggestions are formulated to enhance their effectiveness.

Our current environment is characterized by the omnipresence of food cues. The sight and smell of real foods, but also graphically depictions of appetizing foods, can guide our eating behavior, for example, by eliciting food craving and influencing food choice. The relevance of visual food cues on human information processing has been demonstrated by a growing body of studies employing food images across the disciplines of psychology, medicine, and neuroscience. However, currently used food image sets vary considerably across laboratories and image characteristics (contrast, brightness, etc.) and food composition (calories, macronutrients, etc.) are often unspecified. These factors might have contributed to some of the inconsistencies of this research. To remedy this, we developed food-pics, a picture database comprising 568 food images and 315 non-food images along with detailed meta-data. A total of N = 1988 individuals with large variance in age and weight from German speaking countries and North America provided normative ratings of valence, arousal, palatability, desire to eat, recognizability and visual complexity. Furthermore, data on macronutrients (g), energy density (kcal), and physical image characteristics (color composition, contrast, brightness, size, complexity) are provided. The food-pics image database is freely available under the creative commons license with the hope that the set will facilitate standardization and comparability across studies and advance experimental research on the determinants of eating behavior.

Saliva in the mouth is a biofluid produced mainly by three pairs of major salivary glands--the submandibular, parotid and sublingual glands--along with secretions from many minor submucosal salivary glands. Salivary gland secretion is a nerve-mediated reflex and the volume of saliva secreted is dependent on the intensity and type of taste and on chemosensory, masticatory or tactile stimulation. Long periods of low (resting or unstimulated) flow are broken by short periods of high flow, which is stimulated by taste and mastication. The nerve-mediated salivary reflex is modulated by nerve signals from other centers in the central nervous system, which is most obvious as hyposalivation at times of anxiety. An example of other neurohormonal influences on the salivary reflex is the circadian rhythm, which affects salivary flow and ionic composition. Cholinergic parasympathetic and adrenergic sympathetic autonomic nerves evoke salivary secretion, signaling through muscarinic M3 and adrenoceptors on salivary acinar cells and leading to secretion of fluid and salivary proteins. Saliva gland acinar cells are chloride and sodium secreting, and the isotonic fluid produced is rendered hypotonic by salivary gland duct cells as it flows to the mouth. The major proteins present in saliva are secreted by salivary glands, creating viscoelasticity and enabling the coating of oral surfaces with saliva. Salivary films are essential for maintaining oral health and regulating the oral microbiome. Saliva in the mouth contains a range of validated and potential disease biomarkers derived from epithelial cells, neutrophils, the microbiome, gingival crevicular fluid and serum. For example, cortisol levels are used in the assessment of stress, matrix metalloproteinases-8 and -9 appear to be promising markers of caries and periodontal disease, and a panel of mRNA and proteins has been proposed as a marker of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Understanding the mechanisms by which components enter saliva is an important aspect of validating their use as biomarkers of health and disease.

The traditional view of palatability was that it reflected some underlying nutritional deficit and was part of a homeostatically driven motivational system. However, this idea does not fit with the common observation that palatability can lead to short-term overconsumption. Here, we attempt to re-evaluate the basis of palatability, first by reviewing the role of salt-need both in the expression of liking for salty tastes, and paradoxically, in dissociating need from palatability, and second by examining the role of palatability in short-term control of appetite. Despite the clarity of this system in animals, however, most salt (NaCl) intake in man occurs in a need-free state. Similar conclusions can be drawn in relation to the palatability of food in general. Importantly, the neural systems underlying the hedonic system relating to palatability and homeostatic controls of eating are separate, involving distinct brain structures and neurochemicals. If palatability was a component of homeostatic control, reducing need-state should reduce palatability. However, this is not so, and if anything palatability exerts a stronger stimulatory effect on eating when sated, and over-consumption induced by palatability may contribute to obesity. Differential responsivity to palatability may be a component of the obese phenotype, perhaps through sensitisation of the neural structures related to hedonic aspects of eating. Together, these disparate data clearly indicate that palatability is not a simple reflection of need state, but acts to promote intake through a distinct hedonic system, which has inputs from a variety of other systems, including those regulating need. This conclusion leads to the possibility of novel therapies for obesity based on modulation of hedonic rather than homeostatic controls. Potential developments are discussed.

The orbitofrontal cortex in primates including humans is the key brain area in emotion, and in the representation of reward value and in non-reward, that is not obtaining an expected reward. Cortical processing before the orbitofrontal cortex is about the identity of stimuli, i.e. 'what' is present, and not about reward value. There is evidence that this holds for taste, visual, somatosensory and olfactory stimuli. The human medial orbitofrontal cortex represents many different types of reward, and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex represents non-reward and punishment. Not obtaining an expected reward can lead to sadness, and feeling depressed. The concept is advanced that an important brain region in depression is the orbitofrontal cortex, with depression related to over-responsiveness and over-connectedness of the non-reward-related lateral orbitofrontal cortex, and to under-responsiveness and under-connectivity of the reward-related medial orbitofrontal cortex. Evidence from large-scale voxel-level studies and supported by an activation study is described that provides support for this hypothesis. Increased functional connectivity of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex with brain areas that include the precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex and angular gyrus is found in patients with depression and is reduced towards the levels in controls when treated with medication. Decreased functional connectivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex with medial temporal lobe areas involved in memory is found in patients with depression. Some treatments for depression may act by reducing activity or connectivity of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. New treatments that increase the activity or connectivity of the medial orbitofrontal cortex may be useful for depression. These concepts, and that of increased activity in non-reward attractor networks, have potential for advancing our understanding and treatment of depression. The focus is on the orbitofrontal cortex in primates including humans, because of differences of operation of the orbitofrontal cortex, and indeed of reward systems, in rodents. Finally, the hypothesis is developed that the orbitofrontal cortex has a special role in emotion and decision-making in part because as a cortical area it can implement attractor networks useful in maintaining reward and emotional states online, and in decision-making.

Human perceptions and selection of food are derived from the prevailing and momentary food, agro-economic and cultural environment, cognitive and biological characteristics of individuals, and the real and perceived intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of foods themselves. The range of items typically chosen and consumed within a given population is largely determined by interaction of the external environmental context with guiding sets of implicit and explicit social and psychobiological 'rules'. Within the rather broad limits of biology, individual food choices and intake behaviours relate to and reflect aspects of food availability, existing habitual behaviours, learning mechanisms, and individual beliefs and expectations. Many of the relevant features of these variables are uniquely human, together determining what is 'food', when, how, by and with whom it is chosen and eaten, and in what quantities. They also provide the opportunities for individuals to establish and maintain a relatively stable set of culturally and biologically determined affective responses ('likes') and intake behaviours. Understanding of the potential contribution of these influences under different conditions can serve to explain many of the observed characteristics of human eating, and highlight potential avenues for intervention.

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Complementary neurophysiological recordings in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and functional neuroimaging in human subjects show that the primary taste cortex in the rostral insula and adjoining frontal operculum provides separate and combined representations of the taste, temperature and texture (including viscosity and fat texture) of food in the mouth independently of hunger and thus of reward value and pleasantness. One synapse on, in the orbitofrontal cortex, these sensory inputs are for some neurons combined by learning with olfactory and visual inputs. Different neurons respond to different combinations, providing a rich representation of the sensory properties of food. In the orbitofrontal cortex feeding to satiety with one food decreases the responses of these neurons to that food, but not to other foods, showing that sensory-specific satiety is computed in the primate (including the human) orbitofrontal cortex. Consistently, activation of parts of the human orbitofrontal cortex correlates with subjective ratings of the pleasantness of the taste and smell of food. Cognitive factors, such as a word label presented with an odour, influence the pleasantness of the odour, and the activation produced by the odour in the orbitofrontal cortex. Food intake is thus controlled by building a multimodal representation of the sensory properties of food in the orbitofrontal cortex and gating this representation by satiety signals to produce a representation of the pleasantness or reward value of food that drives food intake. Factors that lead this system to become unbalanced and contribute to overeating and obesity are described.

Receptor proteins for photoreception have been studied for several decades. More recently, putative receptors for olfaction have been isolated and characterized. In contrast, no receptors for taste have been identified yet by molecular cloning. This report describes experiments aimed at identifying a receptor responsible for the taste of monosodium glutamate (MSG). Using reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR, we found that several ionotropic glutamate receptors are present in rat lingual tissues. However, these receptors also could be detected in lingual tissue devoid of taste buds. On the other hand, RT-PCR and RNase protection assays indicated that a G-protein-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptor, mGluR4, also is expressed in lingual tissues and is limited only to taste buds. In situ hybridization demonstrated that mGluR4 is detectable in 40-70% of vallate and foliate taste buds but not in surrounding nonsensory epithelium, confirming the localization of this metabotropic receptor to gustatory cells. Expression of mGluR4 in taste buds is higher in preweaning rats compared with adult rats. This may correspond to the known higher sensitivity to the taste of MSG in juvenile rodents. Finally, behavioral studies have indicated that MSG and L-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate (L-AP4), a ligand for mGluR4, elicit similar tastes in rats. We conclude that mGluR4 may be a chemosensory receptor responsible, in part, for the taste of MSG.

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The sense of smell is found widely in the animal kingdom. Human and animal studies show that odor perception is modulated by experience and/or physiological state (such as hunger), and that some odors can arouse emotion, and can lead to the recall of emotional memories. Further, odors can influence psychological and physiological states. Individual odorants are mapped via gene-specified receptors to corresponding glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, which directly projects to the piriform cortex and the amygdala without a thalamic relay. The odors to which a glomerulus responds reflect the chemical structure of the odorant. The piriform cortex and the amygdala both project to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) which with the amygdala is involved in emotion and associative learning, and to the entorhinal/hippocampal system which is involved in long-term memory including episodic memory. Evidence that some odors can modulate emotion and cognition is described, and the possible implications for the treatment of psychological problems, for example in reducing the effects of stress, are considered.

Basic research has revealed that the chemical sensory world of children is different from that of adults, as evidenced by their heightened preferences for sweet and salty tastes. However, little is known about the ontogeny of sour taste preferences, despite the growing market of extreme sour candies. The present study investigated whether the level of sourness most preferred in a food matrix and the ability to discriminate differences in sour intensity differed between 5- to 9-year-old children and their mothers, by using a rank-by-elimination procedure embedded in the context of a game. Mothers also completed a variety of questionnaires and children were asked several questions to assess whether children's temperament and food preferences and habits related to sour preferences. The results indicated that, although every mother and all but two of the children (92%) were able to rank the gelatins from most to least sour, more than one-third (35%) of the children, but virtually none of the adults, preferred the high levels of sour taste (0.25 M citric acid) in gelatin. Those children who preferred the extreme sour tastes were significantly less food neophobic (P < 0.05) and tended to experience a greater variety of fruits when compared with the remaining children (P = 0.11). Moreover, the children's preference for sour tastes generalized to other foods, such as candies and lemons, as reported by both children and mothers. These findings are the first experimental evidence to demonstrate that sour taste preferences are heightened during childhood and that such preferences are related to children's food habits and preferences. Further research is needed to unfold the relationship between the level of sour taste preferred and the actual consumption of sour-tasting foods and flavors in children.

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This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Taste/Gustation Olfactory–gustatory interactions in multi-sensory flavour perception Oral–somatosensory contributions to multi-sensory flavour perception Auditory contributions to multi-sensory flavour perception 'Visual flavour': visual contributions to multi-sensory flavour perception The cognitive neuroscience of multi-sensory flavour perception Concluding remarks References

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We explore interactions between the irritant effects of oral capsaicin and gustatory and olfactory sensations, and the extent to which experience with chili pepper, and liking for its sensory properties are associated with changes in the perception of oral capsaicin. Oral capsaicin partially masks gustatory and olfactory sensations, but surprisingly, it does not interfere with flavor identification Regular users rate the intensity of orally-induced irritation from capsaicin as markedly lower In spite of this difference, the partial masking of the magnitude of olfactory or gustatory sensations exerted by capsaicin is approximately equal in the two groups. There are indications that decrements in flavor identification under capsaicin are greater in chili dislikers (non-eaters). The pattern of results suggests that the masking effect of capsaicin on taste and smell arises at the stage of processing before (or on a parallel path to) the appreciation of the magnitude of the capsaicin-induced burn sensation.

An attraction for palatable foods rich in lipids is shared by rodents and humans. Over the last decade, the mechanisms responsible for this specific eating behavior have been actively studied, and compelling evidence implicates a taste component in the orosensory detection of dietary lipids [i.e., long-chain fatty acids (LCFA)], in addition to textural, olfactory, and postingestive cues. The interactions between LCFA and specific receptors in taste bud cells (TBC) elicit physiological changes that affect both food intake and digestive functions. After a short overview of the gustatory pathway, this review brings together the key findings consistent with the existence of a sixth taste modality devoted to the perception of lipids. The main steps leading to this new paradigm (i.e., chemoreception of LCFA in TBC, cell signaling cascade, transfer of lipid signals throughout the gustatory nervous pathway, and their physiological consequences) will be critically analyzed. The limitations to this concept will also be discussed in the light of our current knowledge of the sense of taste. Finally, we will analyze the recent literature on obesity-related dysfunctions in the orosensory detection of lipids ("fatty" taste?), in relation to the overconsumption of fat-rich foods and the associated health risks.

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Food perception is characterized by a transition from initially separate sensations of the olfactory and gustatory properties of the object toward their combined sensory experience during consumption. The holistic flavor experience, which occurs as the smell and taste merge, extends beyond the mere addition of the two chemosensory modalities, being usually perceived as more object-like, intense and rewarding. To explore the cortical mechanisms which give rise to olfactory-gustatory binding during natural food consumption, brain activation during consumption of a pleasant familiar beverage was contrasted with presentation of its taste and orthonasal smell alone. Convergent activation to all presentation modes was observed in executive and chemosensory association areas. Flavor, but not orthonasal smell or taste alone, stimulated the frontal operculum, supporting previous accounts of its central role in the formation of the flavor percept. A functional dissociation was observed in the insula: the anterior portion was characterized by sensory convergence, while mid-dorsal sections activated exclusively to the combined flavor stimulus. psycho-physiological interaction analyses demonstrated increased neural coupling between the frontal operculum and the anterior insula during flavor presentation. Connectivity was also increased with the lateral entorhinal cortex, a relay to memory networks and central node for contextual modulation of olfactory processing. These findings suggest a central role of the insular cortex in the transition from mere detection of chemosensory convergence to a superadditive flavor representation. The increased connections between the frontal operculum and medial temporal memory structures during combined olfactory-gustatory stimulation point to a potential mechanism underlying the acquisition and modification of flavor preferences.

Human food selection is dependent on a complex interaction of biological, environmental, cultural and behavioural influences. Numerous studies have provided evidence that food choice is guided neither by physiologic need nor item availability. The widespread prevalence of tooth loss seen in the elderly and the impact of impaired masticatory ability on food selection patterns is often overlooked. Available information suggests that declining masticatory function is, in a large part, responsible for the elderly consuming predominantly soft, easy to chew foods, which, in turn, can induce poor dietary practices and marginal nutritional intakes. It appears that with appreciable tooth loss there is a related decline in masticatory function; significant alterations also take place in certain perceptual and sensory measures. Generally, these perceptual changes reflect alterations in taste and texture preferences; phenomena which persist even after appropriate restorative dental therapy for missing teeth, with either removable partial or complete dentures. It has long been known that full denture wearers experience a reduction in flavour perception after the insertion of their prostheses. In the elderly the generalized decrease in ability to enjoy food has, in part, been attributed to flavour disturbances associated with their dentures. Whether the sensory loss is, to a large degree, due to the prostheses, or primarily reflects age-associated changes in the gustatory and olfactory receptors, is still being explored. The information presented suggests that persons with impaired dentitions , both with and without a dental prosthesis, may impose upon themselves certain dietary restrictions which, in time, can compromise their nutritional status and ultimately place them at health risk.

Oral referral is central to multisensory flavour perception. The phenomenon, first described a little over a century ago, is characterized by the mislocalization of food-related olfactory stimuli to the oral cavity. Many researchers believe that it contributes to the widespread confusion concerning which sense really provides the information that is bound together in flavour percepts. In this review, evidence supporting the role of a number of factors that have been suggested to modulate oral referral, including tactile capture of olfaction, the relative timing of olfactory and gustatory stimuli, and gustatory capture (possibly involving prior entry) is critically evaluated. The latest findings now support the view that the oral referral of orthonasal aroma (what some have chosen to call orthonasal location binding) is modulated by taste intensity, while for retronasal odours, it is the congruency between the odour-taste(s) pairing that is key. Specifically, the more congruent a particular combination of olfactory and gustatory stimuli, the more likely the component unisensory stimuli will be bound together as a flavour object (or Gestalt) and, as a result, localized together to the oral cavity. The possible roles of attention, attentional capture, and the nutritional significance of the taste in the phenomenon of oral referral are also reviewed. Ultimately, the suggestion is made that oral referral may reflect a qualitatively different kind of multisensory interaction.

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In this paper, we propose a pseudo-gustatory display based on the cross-modal interactions that underlie the perception of flavor. Although several studies on visual, auditory, haptic, and olfactory displays have been conducted, gustatory displays have seldom been studied. This scarcity has been attributed to the fact that synthesizing arbitrary taste from basic tastants is difficult. On the other hand, it has been noted that the perception of taste is influenced by visual cues, auditory cues, smell, the trigeminal system, and touch. In our research, we aim at utilizing this influence between modalities for realizing a "pseudo-gustatory" system that enables the user to experience various tastes without changing the chemical composition of foods. Based on this concept, we built a "Meta Cookie" system to change the perceived taste of a cookie by overlaying visual and olfactory information onto a real cookie which an AR marker pattern. We performed an experiment that investigates how people experience the flavor of a plain cookie by using our system. The result suggests that our system can change the perceived taste based on the effect of the cross-modal interaction of vision, olfaction and gustation.

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The senses we call upon when interacting with technology are very restricted. We mostly rely on vision and audition, increasingly harnessing touch, whilst taste and smell remain largely underexploited. In spite of our current knowledge about sensory systems and sensory devices, the biggest stumbling block for progress concerns the need for a deeper understanding of people's multisensory experiences in HCI. It is essential to determine what tactile, gustatory, and olfactory experiences we can design for, and how we can meaningfully stimulate such experiences when interacting with technology. Importantly, we need to determine the contribution of the different senses along with their interactions in order to design more effective and engaging digital multisensory experiences. Finally, it is vital to understand what the limitations are that come into play when users need to monitor more than one sense at a time. The aim of this workshop is to deepen and expand the discussion on touch, taste, and smell within the CHI community and promote the relevance of multisensory experience design and research in HCI.

Nasal and oral trigeminal chemoreception are discussed with a focus on their functions, responses, and interactions with olfaction and gustation. Trigeminal stimulation elicits a number of physiological reflexes which are shown to have several possible effects on the olfactory and gustatory systems. Based on psychophysical and electrophysiological data, it is argued that trigeminal chemoreceptors may be stimulated by a wider range of compounds and concentrations than is generally believed. The molecular structures which tend to characterize effective trigeminal stimuli are also discussed. It is suggested that the evidence for the discriminatory ability of trigeminal chemoreceptors is inconclusive and that this remains a fundamental unanswered question. Finally, the interesting phenomenon of human preference for some initially aversive trigeminal stimuli is reviewed.

Two experiments explored the effects of age, sex, and chemosensory function on the ability of blindfolded participants to identify a series of 12 blended foods. In the first experiment 40 persons aged 18 to 26 and 40 persons over 65 years of age attempted to identify the pureed foods using both taste and odor cues. Half the participants in each group were female, half were male. The average percentage correct on first attempt to identify was significantly higher in young than in old individuals. An Age X Sex interaction revealed a female superiority over men in the elderly group only. With feedback and practice, participants improved, but the age effect remained significant. In the second experiment, 20 young and 17 elderly women who had their nostrils occluded attempted the same identification task. When deprived of olfaction, the performance of young women fell to the same level as that of the old women on first exposure. The relative contributions of cognitive, gustatory, and olfactory/trigeminal factors to the age-related decline in chemosensory function are discussed.

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