3D及4D打印食品

Robots and software have been significantly improving our daily lives by rendering us much convenience. And 3D printing is a typical example, for it is going to usher in a new era of localized manufacturing that is actually based on digital fabrication by layer-by-layer deposition in three-dimensional space. In terms of food industry, the revolution that three-dimensional printing technologies is bringing to food manufacturing is convenience of low-cost customized fabrication and even precise nutrition control. This paper is aimed to give a brief introduction of recent development of food printing and material property of food ingredients that can be used to design the 3D food matrix and investigate the relationship between process parameters and resulting printed food properties in order to establish a food manufacturing process with this new food production approach.

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3D printing, also referred to as additive manufacturing, offers a wide range of new processing possibilities to the food industry. This technology allows a layer by layer (bottom to top) printing of predefined slices of designed and desired objects. 3D printing potentially allows rapid manufacturing of complex objects, which are unhindered by design complexity, thus providing substantial liberty to create new and untested geometric shapes. In terms of food manufacturing, the potential that 3D food printing technologies can bring may revolutionize certain aspects of food manufacturing, providing the convenience of low-cost customized fabrication and even tailored nutrition control. The most common materials suitable for 3D food printing are carbohydrate, fat, protein, fiber and functional components. In the present study, the characteristics of raw materials or additives used during 3D printing, and requirements for estimating and improving their printing performance and self-supporting ability in extrusion-based printing regarding rheological characteristics of 3D food printing materials are reviewed. As an innovative process, 3D food printing may induce a revolution in certain areas of food manufacturing.

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3D food printing, or the use of food materials in additive manufacturing, has been a topic of interest to the commercial sector for the past decade. Recently, there has also been increased attention from the academic field, with a considerable volume of research being published. Most of these studies have focused on developing food inks for extrusion-based printing beyond conventional materials such as chocolate, resulting in a much wider range of printable and edible materials. The formulations of these materials are of particular interest, as they determine the rheological and mechanical properties of food inks, thereby affecting the final quality of the printed food. This article reviews the current status and possible directions in food ink research across five categories, namely confectionery, dairy, hydrogels, plants, and meat. The roles of additives in these inks are then discussed, followed by the remaining challenges and potential opportunities in 3D food printing.

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About 15-25% of aging population suffers from swallowing difficulties, and this creates an increasing market need for food mass customization. Food industry is investigating mass customization techniques to meet individual needs on taste, nutrition and mouthfeel. Three dimensional (3D) food printing is a potential solution to overcome drawbacks of current food customization techniques such as lower production efficiency and high manufacturing cost. This study introduces the first generation food printer concept designs and functional prototypes that target to revolutionize customized food fabrication by 3D printing (3DP). Different from robotics-based food manufacturing technologies designed to automate manual processes for mass production, 3D food printing integrates 3DP and digital gastronomy technique to customize food products. This introduces artistic capabilities into domestic cooking, and extends customization capabilities to industrial culinary sector. Their applications in domestic cooking or catering services can not only provide an engineering solution for customized food design and personalized nutrition control, but also have potential to reconfigure customized food supply chains. In this paper, the selected prototypes are reviewed based on fabrication platforms and printing materials. A detailed discussion on specific 3DP technologies and their associate dispensing/printing process for 3D customized food fabrication with single and multi-material applications are reported. Lastly, impacts of food printing on customized food fabrication, personalized nutrition, food supply chain, and food processing technologies are reported and discussed.

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In food ink systems in which the particles are dispersed in a hydrocolloid matrix, the source of the particles and the particle content are the main factors affecting the printability and rheological properties of the system. In this study, different contents (10% and 30% w/w) of vegetable (broccoli, spinach, or carrot) powders were added to hydrocolloid matrices with different hydration properties, and their influence on the printability and rheological properties was investigated. At low powder contents (10%), slight differences in the printability and rheological values were observed between the different vegetable sources in all hydrocolloids. When the powder content was increased to 30%, the hydrocolloid with the lowest water hydration capacity, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, showed the greatest differences in rheology and printability when different vegetable sources were used. Xanthan gum, with its higher water hydration capacity, inhibited the swelling of the particles, thus minimizing the increase in the rheological values at high volume fractions of powder and reducing the differences in printability between different vegetable sources. Confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis of the vegetable inks showed that xanthan gum inhibited swelling of the particles regardless of the vegetable powder source. The mixtures using xanthan gum could be smoothly extruded from the nozzle due to their low extruded hardness (2.96 ± 0.23 to 3.46 ± 0.16 kg), and the resulting objects showed high resolution without collapse over time. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The powder-based texturization technology introduced in this study provides a standardized method of preparing food ink that can be universally applied to all food materials that can be powdered. In addition, the present invention can be applied to a 3D printing technique in which a powder and a hydrocolloid matrix are independently stored and mixed immediately before printing. This technique can minimize the inherent rheological differences between formulations with different food sources and compositions.

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Purpose To explore the nutrition opportunities and challenges for 3D food printing. Design/methodology/approach Using a qualitative design, semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from the field of nutrition or with a technical understanding of 3D food printing and a thematic analysis undertaken. Findings Four themes emerged: potential uses, sustainability, technical issues and ethical and social issues. The primary use identified was for texture-modified diets. Other uses include personalised nutrition and for novelty purposes. Interviewees indicated food printing may aid sustainability by reducing food waste, using food by-products and incorporating eco-friendly foods. The main technical issues were speed, cost and inability of the technology to move between textures. The latter is a limiting issue if the technology is purported to be used for texture-modified diets. Ethical and social issues raised included the acceptability and high degree of processing involved in printed foods. Originality/value This research highlights the need for nutrition issues to be considered as 3D food printing technology develops.

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3D printing technology is rapidly transforming supply chains across diverse manufacturing sectors, enabling personalisation of consumer goods ranging from car parts, medical devices, toys, houses, and even clothing. Food production is also included in the breadth of applications of this expanding technology. Increasing consumer awareness about sustainability, including the problem of food waste, as well as growing interest in customised nutrition have led to the emergence of food industry research focused on aspects, such as packaging, portion size, and healthy sustainable ingredients, to satisfy consumer demands. The growing market for personalised food options in particular, requires increased flexibility and agility to tailor ingredients to an individual’s specific requirements. Such specificity is not easily fulfilled using traditional mass production methods; however, the emerging technology of 3D food printing (3DFP) may be one solution. This paper evaluates the opportunities, risks, and challenges associated with 3DFP, with a focus on developing sustainable supply chains for future growth. Drawing on 12 semi-structured interviews with 3DFP industry managers and current literature in the domain, we propose three supply chain models for 3DFP services, as well as an overview of the key business drivers.

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3D food printing has recently attracted significant attention, both from academic and industrial researchers, due to its ability to manufacture customized products in such terms as size, shape, texture, color, and nutrition to meet demands of individual consumers. 4D printing, which is a technique that allows evolution of various characteristics/properties of 3D printed objects over time through external stimulation, has also been gaining more attention. In order to produce defect-free printed objects via both 3D and 4D printing, it is necessary to first identify the causes of defects and then their mitigation strategies. Comprehensive review on these important issues is nevertheless missing. The purpose of this review is to investigate causes and characteristics of defects occurring during and/or after 3D food printing, with a focus on how different factors affect the printing accuracy. Various techniques that can potentially minimize or eliminate printing defects and produce high-quality 3D/4D printed food products without the need for time-consuming trial and error printing experiments are critically discussed. Guidelines to avoid defects to improve the efficiency of future 3D/4D printed food production are given.

Development of 3D food printing applications requires in-depth knowledge on printing behaviour of food materials. In extrusion-based 3D printing, rheological properties of a recipe are critical to achieve successful printing. The objective of this research is to investigate potential correlations between printability of formulations and simple rheological properties. We used tomato paste as a model system to investigate the correlation between printing stability, dispensability and rheological properties. The results show a linear correlation between ingredient's flow stress, zero shear viscosity and corresponding printing stability. The extrusion pressure necessary to extrude tomato paste increased linearly with increasing flow stress. More experiments with other aqueous-based food formulations indicated that their printability aligned reasonably well with the correlation of tomato paste; however, for fat-based products different printing behaviour was observed. Finally, we propose a rational guideline for developing aqueous food recipes with desired printability based on flow stress measured by shear rheology.

The utilization of plant proteins to formulate edible inks for 3D/4D food printing applications may help address challenges linked to food sustainability, personalized nutrition, and security. We investigate the suitability of various plant proteins for this purpose, including their molecular, functional, and nutritional attributes. Furthermore, we examine the potential of plant protein-based edible inks in 4D printing applications, where the shape or other properties of a material change over time, enabling controlled release profiles and texture modulations. We also discuss the environmental implications, regulatory considerations, and consumer acceptance of plant-based 3D/4D printed foods. Pea and soy proteins are widely used as inks for 3D/4D food printing applications due to their excellent structure-forming abilities, as well as their functional and nutritional properties. However, solely plant protein-based inks often lack essential characteristics required for optimal performance. Their properties can be enhanced by incorporating other food ingredients, such as polysaccharides and polyphenols. As this emerging field holds promise for addressing multiple global food-related challenges, it necessitates interdisciplinary collaboration and ongoing research to unlock its full potential.

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4D printing is a result of 3D printing of smart materials which respond to diverse stimuli to produce novel products. 4D printing has been applied successfully to many fields, e.g., engineering, medical devices, computer components, food processing, etc. The last two years have seen a significant increase in studies on 4D as well as 5D and 6D food printing. This paper reviews and summarizes current applications, benefits, limitations, and challenges of 4D food printing. In addition, the principles, current, and potential applications of the latest additive manufacturing technologies (5D and 6D printing) are reviewed and discussed. Presently, 4D food printing applications have mainly focused on achieving desirable color, shape, flavor, and nutritional properties of 3D printed materials. Moreover, it is noted that 5D and 6D printing can in principle print very complex structures with improved strength and less material than do 3D and 4D printing. In future, these new technologies are expected to result in significant innovations in all fields, including the production of high quality food products which cannot be produced with current processing technologies. The objective of this review is to identify industrial potential of 4D printing and for further innovation utilizing 5D and 6D printing.

4D printing is an additive manufacturing technique and is an extension of 3D printing. 4D food printing is a newly developed area in 4D printing, and it is in the stage of infancy. 4D food printing has gained much attention from the academic and industrial sectors. Compared to other fields of 4D printing, the number of literature reviews available for 4D food printing is scanty. The current article gives an overview of 4D printing with an emphasis on 4D food printing. This review address the effect of various stimuli on the properties such as color, flavor, texture, and shape of 4D printed food samples. Besides, it also covers 4D design development, food printing ink, and various methods used in 4D food printing. Most 4D food printing focuses on microwave treatment or the influence of pH as a stimulating agent in printed food objects. The food properties like color, taste, aroma, texture and the shape of 4D printed food changed under stimuli. Starch, soy protein isolate, potato purees, buckwheat dough, etc., are food materials yet to be explored in 4D printing. The printing ink used in 4D printing consists of a stimulus-responsive material, bringing spontaneous changes in 3D printed structure. Anthocyanine, vanillin powder, and curcumin area few stimulus-responsive materials used in 4D food printing, which will change color in response to pH. The use of multiple stimulus-responsive materials and different stimulating agents like light can be explored.

Structured vegetable oils can replace animal-derived fats providing healthier products. 3D food printing is a toll for designing complex and tailored foods. Nonetheless, the printability of oleogels is yet an underexplored topic. Herein, we report on water-free sunflower oil oleogels comprising lecithin and phytosterols with room temperature printability. The printability was optimized based on four geometric features, time stability, total solids, phytosterol-lecithin ratio, speed, and number of layers. The microstructure, X-ray diffraction, texture, printing tests, and design of experiments revealed highly printable oleogels at both low (≥20%) and high solids (up to 80%), for specific ratios of phytosterol-lecithin. Those presented a needle-like microstructure with polymorphic forms β′ and β-crystals. Some texture properties (e.g., adhesiveness) were significantly affected by the speed, total solids and ratio. With this work we propose using highly printable oleogels for different food applications, nevertheless future work should clarify how printed oleogels will behave when incorporated in a food matrix.

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With the speeding tendency of aging society, the population experienced dysphagia is increasing quickly. Desirable dysphagic diets should be safe, visually appealing and nutritious. 3D printing allows for creation of personalized nutritious foods with regular-like appearance. Shiitake mushroom, rich in protein and bioactive compounds, is suitable for elderly, but its hard texture was not friendly to the elderly with dysphagia. This study investigated the feasibility of production of dysphagic product using shiitake mushroom by 3D printing with various gums addition, including arabic gum (AG), xanthan gum (XG) and <i>k</i>-carrageenan gum (KG) at concentrations of 0.3%, 0.6% and 0.9% (<i>w</i>/<i>w</i>). Data suggested that XG and KG incorporation significantly increased inks' mechanical strength by decreasing water mobility and promoting the formation of hydrogen bond, enabling 3D printed objects with great self-supporting capacity. The XG containing and KG-0.3% samples were categorized into level 5-minced and moist dysphagia diet within international dysphagia diet standardization initiative (IDDSI) framework. AG addition decreased mechanical strength and viscosity, hardness and self-supporting capacity of 3D printed constructions. AG-0.3% and AG-0.6% samples could not be classified as dysphagia diets based on IDDSI tests. This study provides useful information for dysphagia diet development with appealing appearance by 3D printing.

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The review highlights the transformative role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning in advancing 3D food printing (3DFP), focusing on improved customization, print quality, consistency, and operational efficiency. While progress has been made, full AI integration across the 3DFP workflow particularly in real-time monitoring and adaptive manufacturing remains limited. The study emphasizes AI’s potential to reduce food waste, enable personalized nutrition, and enhance 3D/4D printing through smart materials and optimized ink formulations. Using the PRISMA framework, recent studies were analyzed to show how AI-driven techniques support print parameter optimization, material behavior prediction, and real-time feedback. Reinforcement learning, for example, can reduce material waste by up to 25%, especially with high-cost or sustainable ingredients. Innovations such as nanomaterials and 4D food printing are expanding applications into areas like personalized healthcare. Despite these advancements, challenges persist in printability, data processing, material compatibility, and AI reliability. The review underscores the need for standardized datasets, biocompatible materials, and regulatory clarity. Future directions include developing intelligent closed-loop systems and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration to improve scalability and robustness. Overall, AIenhanced 3DFP shows strong potential to revolutionize food systems by delivering customized, sustainable, and nutritionally precise solutions.

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Abstract Dysphagia affects a person's ability to swallow, and it causes health problems by directly limiting nutritional intake, being the elderly the most at‐risk group and also likely to be deficient in nutrition. Diets for patients with dysphagia require textural modifications to offer soft and safe food to swallow. Puree is easily consumed by the elderly, being an alternative food preparation providing essential nutrition for people with dysphagia. In this study, we aimed to create different formulations with soy protein and agar added to potato puree to add nutritional value and end up with printable material by designing food for the elderly and people with dysphagia. Some enriched potato puree formulations were obtained by adding soy protein (3%, 5%, and 7%) and up to 0.2% agar. The use of three‐dimensional food printing allows visual customization with appeal benefits of nutritional food formulations for specific consumers. The rheology and texture profile analysis of the different formulations has been performed. According to International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) scales, the texture of all modified samples was suitable for people with swallowing difficulties. The samples with agar presented a better‐printed shape and a more viscous‐like behavior than the samples with soy protein. These findings highlight that soy protein could modify the texture and, from the nutritional point of view, add value to the formulations. The addition of 0.2% agar can establish good material for designing three‐dimensional (3D)‐printed food that allows the creation of textures in accordance with the needs of the elderly and people with dysphagia.

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Since its conception, the application of 3D printing in the structuring of food materials has been focused on the processing of novel material formulations and customized textures for innovative food applications, such as personalized nutrition and full sensory design. The continuous evolution of the used methods, approaches, and materials has created a solid foundation for technology to process dynamic food structures. Four-dimensional food printing is an extension of 3D printing where food structures are designed and printed to perform time-dependent changes activated by internal or external stimuli. In 4D food printing, structures are engineered through material tailoring and custom designs to achieve a transformation from one configuration to another. Different engineered 4D behaviors include stimulated color change, shape morphing, and biological growth. As 4D food printing is considered an emerging application, imperatively, this article proposes new considerations and definitions in 4D food printing. Moreover, this article presents an overview of 4D food printing within the current scientific progress, status, and approaches.

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This review examines recent advancements in gel-based 3D and 4D food-printing technologies, with a focus on their applications in personalized nutrition and functional foods. It emphasizes the critical role of tunable rheological and mechanical properties in gels such as starch, protein, and Pickering emulsions, which are essential for successful printing. The review further explores 4D food printing, highlighting stimuli-responsive mechanisms, including color changes and deformation induced by external factors like temperature and pH. These innovations enhance both the sensory and functional properties of printed foods, advancing opportunities for personalization. Key findings from recent studies are presented, demonstrating the potential of various gels to address dietary challenges, such as dysphagia, and to enable precise nutritional customization. The review integrates cutting-edge research, identifies emerging trends and challenges, and underscores the pivotal role of gel-based materials in producing high-quality 3D-printed foods. Additionally, it highlights the potential of Pickering emulsions and lipid gels for expanding functionality and structural diversity. Overall, this work provides a comprehensive foundation for advancing future research and practical applications in gel-based 3D and 4D food printing.

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Additive manufacturing (AM) plays a vital role in the globalised world as it provides innovative technologies to manufacture customised parts with different materials in different volumes. Food and agriculture sector needs extensive customisation towards designing and development of types of equipment. Through this paper, we are proposing an extensive usage of AM in these sectors. AM is capable for designing/production of customised/innovative food items such as coffee, pizza, burger, biscuits, cakes, chocolates and other everyday food items as per the required volume of ingredients, shape and colour. AM brings innovation in the agricultural sector, with its capability to produce customised physical models and making them directly for use onto the farms. It enables testing of obtained design towards flaws/productivity before the actual production of agricultural equipment in the factory. A farmer can be provided ergonomically useful and customised agricultural equipment as per the need of shape, size and design.

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A novel 3D printable food construct, comprising of rice flour (RF), jaggery (J), and water (W) are being investigated for an extrusion-based 3D food printer. The effect of the constituents on the rheological properties, textural properties, and printability of 20 different combinations were investigated and two combinations of R3 and R5 were found to be best printable based on their shape retention after printing. To determine the best combination between R3 and R5 steaming was done as post-processing and R5 was found to have better dimensional accuracy than R3. Also, R5 required lesser extrusion force compared to R3. The rheological and textural parameters of the best combination R5 (RF: 85.95 g, J: 33.04 g, W: 114.93 g) are hardness: 254.41 g, adhesiveness: −527.05 g-sec, firmness: 3,835.66 g, G′: 9,066.67 Pa, G″: 1,708.33 Pa, phase angle: 10.68°, G*: 9,226.2 Pa, flow stress (FS): 138.07 Pa, yield stress: 8.06 Pa. Mathematical model for G′, G″, and FS with R2 .91, .83, and .99, respectively, are proposed. Practical applications The developed construct can be used as a healthy 3D printing construct by new startups as 3D printing is gaining importance day by day. The complete rheological and texture properties of the best printable construct are studied in detail which helps in characterizing the sample and mathematical models are proposed for G′, G″, and flow stress. This work proposes the use of jaggery as a healthy alternative to sugar as many commercial 3D printed objects are based on sugar. Since most of the printing has been reported with some sort of additives, this work proves the possibility of using traditional food materials without additives for printing.

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The nutritional design of personalized starchy foods has become a research hotspot in the field of food science. Driven by the immense functional and nutritional implications of starch-lipid binary interactions, this study is aimed at designing starch digestibility by controlling the interaction between starch and glycerol monostearate (GMS)/stearic acid (SA) using a hot-extrusion 3D printing (HE-3DP) environment. The results indicated that the thermal shear force in the HE-3DP environment promoted hydrophobic interactions between starch and lipids, forming a V-type starch-lipid complex with a compact and ordered structure, thus enhancing enzymatic resistance. Compared with GMS, SA with linear hydrophobic chains was inclined to compound with starch to form a more ordered structure. Interestingly, the slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) content reached 25.06% when the added SA content was 10%. Besides, correlations between the structural parameters and digestibility were established, which provided crucial information for designing nutritional starchy food systems using HE-3DP.

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Honeyed red ginseng (HRG), dried (water content of <150 g/kg) by boiling-downed fresh ginseng in honey, is a popular functional food for older adults; however, HRG has a gummy texture. The prevalence of dysphagia is on the rise, correlating with the growing elderly population. The dysphagia diet must be texture-modified to a paste-like consistency, but the paste-like foods can lower appetite and preference. This study aimed to manufacture HRG by 3D printing for patients with dysphagia and investigated the potential of isolated pea protein (IPP) at a ratio of 0, 30, 60, and 90 g/kg based on steamed ginseng. Polysaccharide–protein interaction was observed using SEM, FT–IR, and textural analysis. The addition of IPP increased the storage modulus and shear thinning, and printing parameters (flow rate and speed) were optimized using response surface methodology. The sample of an additional 60 g/kg IPP could be classified by the IDDSI test as a dysphagia diet (level 5; minced and moist) and had the highest sensory similarity to commercial HRGs. These findings provide insights into dessert manufacturing technology for dysphagia patients using 3D printers and propose the potential utility of nutritional and visual enhancement if IPP is used as a thickener.

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3D printing technologies are rapidly revolutionizing all manufacturing sectors due to their ability to create objects with complex geometries in a reproducible and automated manner using material/cell-based formulations, precisely termed printing inks. In this regard, pectin, a naturally occurring plant polysaccharide, has been proposed as a potential component of ink formulations. In this mini-review, we overview the most recent advances made with pectin-based inks in the fields of tissue engineering and food manufacturing. We also discuss various strategies used to formulate 3D printable pectin inks. Finally, various challenges and prospects for future development are discussed.

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Thermoreversible food materials are suitable for hot-extrusion 3D food printing (HE-3DFP) to customize food designs and enable on-demand food production. A challenge of HE-3DFP is to control the material phase transition such that it melts to allow flow and extrusion and rapidly solidifies afterwards to obtain stable printed structures. We here report on the use of thermal imaging to simultaneously monitor material cooling and deformation of common thermoreversible food materials during HE-3DFP. Thermographic and rheological measurements show that the structural deformation is driven by slow material cooling and prolonged printing time. The surface temperature of printed objects is a good indicator for structural stability. Solidification mechanisms such as cross-linking or strong particle jamming are required to prevent deformation in time (i.e. creep) during printing. Thus we recommend to set the printing temperature just above material's gelation temperature to ensure proper extrudability and structural stability of the printed foods.

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This work aims at investigating the impact of commonly used sweeteners-sugar and jaggery on 3D printability of rice flour (RF) paste. The physicochemical characteristics of rice flour suitable for 3D food printing have been investigated. Three mixes, rice flour with water (M₁ : RF-50.86%, water-49.14%), rice flour with sugar and water (M₂ : RF-36.75%, sugar-14.10%, water-49.14%) and rice flour with jaggery and water (M₃ : RF-36.75%, jaggery-14.10%, water-49.14%) were compared on 3D printability based on visual inspection and properties supporting 3D printability and shape retention. The effect of the three mixes was characterized on color, rheological, thixotropic, and handling properties. Out of the three mixes, M₃ is found to have the best printability characteristics with shear thinning behavior, yield stress of 157 Pa, flow stress of 121 Pa, and extrusion force of 6.62 kg.

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Different starch modification methods have been proposed to broaden the application of starch-derived ingredients in the field of 3D printing. In this study, the effects of different concentrations of anionic hydrocolloids (xanthan gum and sodium alginate) and calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) on the structural and physicochemical properties of corn starch-based edible inks were investigated. The presence of the Ca 2+ -crosslinked anionic hydrocolloids enhanced the gelatinization, rheological, and thermal properties of the corn starch, with the xanthan gum showing the best improvement. The crystal structure of the starch granules disappeared after gelatinization in both the presence and absence of the anionic hydrocolloids. However, the starch in the composite hydrogels had a more compact and uniform microstructure than that in the pure starch hydrogels. The observed improvements in the functional performance of the starch in the composite hydrogels were mainly attributed to alterations in noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding and ion bridging. The starch-hydrocolloid hydrogels exhibited better printing performance than starch hydrogels in 3D printing applications. Consequently, they have potential in the development of foods for people suffering from dysphagia. This research shows that anionic hydrocolloids can be used to enhance the functional performance of starch-based edible inks in the field of 3D food printing. • Ca 2+ -crosslinked anionic hydrocolloids promote the formation of CS gel. • The gel hardness and thermal stability of CS gel was significantly improved. • The composite hydrogels exhibited better 3D printing performance. • Compact structure was formed by the enhanced hydrogen bond and ion bridge interaction. • Starch-hydrocolloid hydrogels have potential in the development of dysphagia diets.

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Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter Facebook Reddit LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Reprints and Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation L. Serenó, G. Vallicrosa, J. Delgado, J. Ciurana; A new application for food customization with additive manufacturing technologies. AIP Conference Proceedings 30 April 2012; 1431 (1): 825–833. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4707640 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentAIP Publishing PortfolioAIP Conference Proceedings Search Advanced Search |Citation Search

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Abstract This research investigates Food Additive Manufacturing (FAM) as an innovative 3D printing technology for producing sustainable and customized food products. By enabling precise layer-by-layer deposition, FAM allows for personalized control over food shape, texture, flavor, and nutritional composition. The research evaluates the printability of mushroom-based food ink, focusing on optimizing rheological, textural, and color properties to enhance print quality and expand its applicability in the food industry. A mushroom-based food ink was formulated and tested using an extrusion-based 3D printer equipped with IoT capabilities for real-time monitoring and defect detection. Key process parameters including extrusion rate, nozzle size (1.5 mm), and printing speed (30 mm/s) were optimized to ensure structural stability and precise material flow. Rheological analysis confirmed shear-thinning behavior, critical for smooth extrusion and layer adhesion, while spectrophotometric and texture assessments validated the ink’s aesthetic and mechanical suitability for 3D printing. Beyond technical findings, this study underscores environmental benefits, such as reducing food waste by utilizing renewable ingredients. Aligning with sustainable food production goals, this research enhances FAM’s potential for scalable, hygienic, and eco-friendly manufacturing, paving the way for innovative, personalized nutrition solutions.

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Allied health professionals considered that 3D food printing could benefit people with dysphagia by reducing the negative impacts of poorly presented texture-modified foods. However, they also considered that feasibility barriers could impede uptake and use of 3D food printers. Further research should consider the views of people with dysphagia and address barriers reported in this study.

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The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of soy protein isolate (SPI) gels added with <i>Tremella</i> polysaccharides (TPs) and psyllium husk powder (PHP) as 3D printing inks for developing dysphagia-friendly food and elucidate the potential mechanism of TPs and PHP in enhancing the printing and swallowing performance of SPI gels. The results indicated that the SPI gels with a TP : PHP ratio of 3 : 7 could be effectively used as printing inks to manufacture dysphagia-friendly food. The addition of TPs increased the free water content, resulting in a decrease in the viscosity of the SPI gels, which, in turn, reduced the line width of the 3D-printed product and structural strength of the gel system. The addition of PHP increased disulfide bond interactions and excluded volume interactions, which determined the mechanical strength of SPI gels and increased the line width of the printed product. The synergistic effects between TPs and PHP improved the printing precision and structural stability. This study presents meaningful insights for the utilization of 3D printing in the creation of dysphagia-friendly food using protein-polysaccharide complexes.

There is a great demand for dysphagia diets as the number of old dysphagic patients is increasing rapidly with the aging population trend. This study is aimed to develop attractive dysphagia diets using 3D printing based on succinylated lactoferrin-luteolin nanocomplexation incorporated with combinations of low acyl gellan gum (LAG), high acyl gellan gum (HAG) and gelatin (GL). Rheological, textural, and gel strength of tested inks were examined to assess the potential of the inks for dysphagic diets. The combination of 0.2 g/100 g HAG, 2 g/100 g LAG, and 2 g/100 g GL displayed the optimal printing quality, self-supporting ability, and stability. Concomitantly, it had exceptional water holding capacity and water content. The feasibility of inks as dysphagia diets was evaluated using IDDSI tests, which showed HAG\LAG\GL can be classified as level 4-puree/extremely thick foods and was specifically designed for dysphagic individuals. Radical scavenging assays and in vitro digestion simulations demonstrated the HAG\LAG\GL possessed substantial antioxidant capabilities and maximally enhanced the bioaccessibility of luteolin. Correlation analysis showed quite significant difference between the control and HAG\LAG\GL. These findings underscore the importance of precise colloidal content and types in ensuring optimal printability in 3D printing applications, and provide insights on the development of attractive 3D printing dysphagia diets. • Lactoferrin-luteolin nanocomplexation were creatively loaded into 3D printing inks. • Nanocomplexation-based HAG\LAG\GL ink is appropriate for dysphagic individuals. • Succinylated nanocomplexation-based inks presented excellent antioxidant capacity. • IDDSI confirmed printing ink is classified as level 4-puree/extremely thick foods. • Newly designed 3D printing ink have tremendous potential in dysphagia diets.

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After an immersive virtual experience with a 3D food printer, people with dysphagia and their supporters identified a wide range of usability issues that would need to be addressed prior to implementation and in the future design of user-friendly 3D food printers for people with dysphagia. Future research should include people with dysphagia and their supporters in 3D food printer design and implementation trials.Implications for Rehabilitation3D food printing may provide people with dysphagia who require texture-modified food a way to produce visually appealing texture-modified food if usability issues are addressed.3D food printing could improve participation in meal preparation if the person with dysphagia chooses the food and the shape and size of the printed food shape.

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As life expectancy increases so do age related problems such as swallowing disorders, dysphagia, which affects 10%–30% of people over 65 years old. For dysphagia patients the texture and rheological properties of the food, and the bolus, is critical to avoid choking and pneumonia. Texture modified foods, timbals, are often served to these patients due to their ease of swallowing. The main concern with these foods is that they do not look visually alike the food they replace, which can decrease the patient’s appetite and lead to reduced food intake and frailty. This study aims to improve both the visual appearance of texturized food as well as the energy density and fiber content of the timbal formulation. 3D scanning and additive manufacturing (3D Printing) were used to produce meals more reminiscent of original food items, increasing their visual appeal. Rheology was used to ensure the original flow profile was maintained as the timbal was reformulated by reducing starch contents and partially replacing with dietary fibers. The amount of starch was reduced from 8.7 wt% in the original formulation to 3.5 wt% and partially replaced with 3 wt% citrus fiber, while maintaining properties suitable for both swallowing and 3D printing. The resulting formulation has improved nutritional properties, while remaining suitable for constructing visually appealing meals, as demonstrated by 3Dprinting a chicken drumstick from a model generated with 3D scanning.

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In recent years, many companies and research institutes have been conducting research on food 3D printers. The most commonly known 3D printing method is the thermal melting and lamination method, fused deposition modeling (FDM), in which plastic materials are melted and then ejected from a nozzle. The plastic materials used in this method are thermoplastic resins such as ABS and PLA. In order to 3D print a variety of materials, various types of 3D printing methods have been developed, and it is currently already possible to 3D print materials including metal, wood, and gel. There is also a growing movement to apply this technology to the food industry to create food using 3D printers. There are a variety of food materials, such as chocolate, jelly, and dough, and accordingly, there are various types of 3D printing methods, such as the syringe method and the screw method. In this paper, we introduce various types of food 3D printers and their applications.

Dysphagia affects many people worldwide. Modifying foods to standard consistencies, and manual design and assembly of foods for the daily requirements of people with dysphagia is challenging. People with dysphagia may develop a dislike for pureed foods due to the unattractiveness of the appearance of the foods, the lack of variety in daily meals, and the diluted taste of meals. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is emerging as a method for making foods for people with special mealtime needs. Very few efforts have been made to apply 3D food printing to improving the lives of people with special mealtime needs such as those with dysphagia. This paper presents the design and 3D printing of visually appetizing pureed foods for people with dysphagia with high consistency and repeatability. A tuna fish involving pureed tuna (protein), pureed pumpkin (fruit), and pureed beetroot (vegetable) is designed and then 3D printed. The steps involved in the design of tuna fish, preparation of purees, and printing of tuna fish are described. The obtained results are presented, and the findings of this research work are discussed.

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In order to solve the dietary problems of patients with dysphagia, a mathematical model for predicting extrusion pressure is established. The predictive model parameters are determined with the aid of the finite element method, and a 3D printing nozzle capable of printing nutrient-rich sandwich food is designed according to the predictive model. Pumpkin puree and minced pork are verified according to IDDSI standards. Finally, the accuracy of the predictive model and the printing effect of the design nozzle are verified by extrusion and printing experiments, respectively. The results show that four groups of simulation experiments reveal that the extrusion pressure increases by 15.6%, 13.5%, 12.7% and 12.4%, respectively, with a 1 cm increase in nozzle length. When the nozzle length is in the range of 1–5 cm, the extrusion pressure increases with the increase of the volume flow rate in the extrusion cylinder. The extrusion speed has little correlation with the length of the nozzle outlet, but for every 1 cm3/s increase in the inlet volume flow rate, the extrusion speed increases by about 1.5%. The finite element simulation experiment determines that the parameters of the prediction model are σ0 = 0.6, α = 1.1, m = 0.21, τ0 = 0, β = 0.52 and n = 0.2; the error between the predictive value and the experimental value is 15%, and the printed sandwich food has smooth lines, good molding and complies with IDDSI standards.

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Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has enabled to shape food in unique and complex 3D shapes. To showcase the capability of 3D food printing, chocolates have been commonly used as printing inks, and 3D printing based on hot-melt extrusion have been demonstrated to model 3D chocolate products. Although hot-melt extrusion of chocolates is simple, the printing requires precise control over the operating temperature in a narrow range. In this work, for the first time, we directly printed chocolate-based inks in its liquid phase using direct ink writing (DIW) 3D printer to model complex 3D shapes without temperature control. We termed this method as chocolate-based ink 3D printing (Ci3DP). The printing inks were prepared by mixing readily available chocolate syrup and paste with cocoa powders at 5 to 25 w/w% to achieve desired rheological properties. High concentrations of cocoa powders in the chocolate-based inks exhibited shear-thinning properties with viscosities ranging from 10² to 10⁴ Pa.s; the inks also possessed finite yield stresses at rest. Rheology of the inks was analyzed by quantifying the degree of shear-thinning by fitting the experimental data of shear stress as a function of shear rate to Herschel-Bulkley model. We demonstrated fabrication of 3D models consisting of chocolate syrups and pastes mixed with the concentration of cocoa powders at 10 to 25 w/w%. The same method was extended to fabricate chocolate-based models consisting of multiple type of chocolate-based inks (e.g. semi-solid enclosure and liquid filling). The simplicity and flexibility of Ci3DP offer great potentials in fabricating complex chocolate-based products without temperature control.

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To improve meals for people with dysphagia, we explored the views of people with dysphagia, their supporters and allied health professionals on a range of food design strategies (e.g. food shaping and food presentation techniques), including 3D food printing. From November 2021 to February 2022, an online survey of (1) adults with dysphagia (n = 30) and (2) supporters of people with dysphagia and allied health professionals (n = 22) was conducted. The survey included multiple choice, Likert scale and open-ended questions. Data was analysed descriptively. Most participants across the two groups had used at least one food design strategy for texture-modified foods and none had used 3D food printing. People with dysphagia were less likely to use food shaping techniques in preparing their texture-modified meals than other respondents. Supporters of people with dysphagia and allied health professionals were more likely than people with dysphagia to use food shaping techniques and to consider that 3D food printing could improve the visual appeal and enjoyment of texture-modified foods. A range of issues impacting the feasibility of 3D food printing were identified. The use of food design strategies for texture-modified foods may increase the food choices and mealtime enjoyment of people with dysphagia. Further research exploring how people with dysphagia and their supporters engage with 3D food printing could identify further influences on their future use of these technologies.

We developed a method to perform direct ink writing (DIW) three-dimensional (3D) printing of milk products at room temperature by changing the rheological properties of the printing ink. 3D printing of food products has been demonstrated by different methods such as selective laser sintering (SLS) and hot-melt extrusion. Methods requiring high temperatures are, however, not suitable to creating 3D models consisting of temperature-sensitive nutrients. Milk is an example of such foods rich in nutrients such as calcium and protein that would be temperature sensitive. Cold-extrusion is an alternative method of 3D printing, but it requires the addition of rheology modifiers and the optimization of the multiple components. To address this limitation, we demonstrated DIW 3D printing of milk by cold-extrusion with a simple formulation of the milk ink. Our method relies on only one milk product (powdered milk). We formulated 70 w/w% milk ink and successfully fabricated complex 3D structures. Extending our method, we demonstrated multi-material printing and created food with various edible materials. Given the versatility of the demonstrated method, we envision that cold extrusion of food inks will be applied in creating nutritious and visually appealing food, with potential applications in formulating foods with various needs for nutrition and materials properties, where food inks could be extruded at room temperature without compromising the nutrients that would be degraded at elevated temperatures.

Personalizing the nutrition and sensorial attributes of 3D printed foods primarily requires various multiscale properties to be individually tailored. Herein, multiscale inks are produced by segregative phase separation, a candidate for further 3D inks texture control, of gellan gum (GG), and whey protein isolate (WPI). The inks microstructure, rheological properties, flow dynamics, their impact on printability, and properties-variables interactions are analyzed using experimental design and clustering. The gels are a GG matrix structured with WPI beads or fibers ranging from <5 to >100 μm in diameter. A straightforward, six-step printability test determines that high-quality prints require increasing viscosity, which is obtained by reducing the size and length of the WPI beads. Also, flow dynamics and rheology models predict the shear stress and extrusion force, according to the print settings and food-inks fluid properties. The phase-separated inks enable printing at high speed (>25/50 mm/s) upon low extrusion forces (<50 N) and low shear stresses (<500 Pa), according to the calculations and model validation. These printability evaluation methodologies and fabrication of phase-separated inks are particularly interesting for 3D food printing, bioprinting, or biomaterials applications.

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The practicable application of 3D printing in the pharmaceutical and food sectors directly relates to the preparation of highly stable bioactive printable inks. Here, three different polyphenols (rosemary polyphenols, thyme polyphenols, and basil polyphenols) were individually grafted onto soy protein isolate through a free-radical grafting method to produce a precursor printable ink to develop 3D printed plant-based cheese. The morphological features, emulsion rheology measurements, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring techniques, and interfacial shear rheology were used to monitor emulsification features and interfacial rheology (i.e., adsorption kinetics, viscoelastic features, and interfacial adsorbed layers) of precursor inks. Compared to soy-based ink, polyphenols-grafted soy protein inks developed more stable emulsions against coalescence with finer droplets. Also, the interfacial adsorption properties of protein particles were improved after the grafting process, in which the surface dilatational viscoelastic moduli and interfacial pressure were boosted. The ink formulating by soy protein-g-rosemary polyphenols (with greater hydrophobicity) showed a emulsion droplets with smaller size, had a stiffer structure, and stronger surface activity than inks containing soy protein-g-thyme or soy protein-g-basil polyphenols, which displayed a 3D printed cheese analogue with improved lubrication property, higher creamy sensation and mouth-coating feature. Overall, this work suggests that compatibilization of the plant polyphenols and the soy proteins offers an opportunity for adopting plant-based inks in the 3D printing of advanced materials.

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The integration of functional ingredients into 3D food printing formulations presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly regarding the printability and structural integrity of the final product. This study investigates the effect of incorporating omega-3 fatty acids encapsulated in pea protein into a model food gel composed of gelatin and iota-carrageenan. Four formulations with varying concentrations of encapsulated omega-3 (0%, 3%, 3.75%, and 6%) were evaluated for their rheological, textural, and printability properties. Rheological analysis revealed a progressive increase in storage modulus (G') from 1200 Pa (0%) to 2000 Pa (6%), indicating enhanced elastic behavior. Extrusion analysis showed a reduction in maximum extrusion force from 325 N (0%) to 250 N (6%), and an increase in buffer time from 390 s to 500 s. Print fidelity at time 0 showed minimal deviation in the checkerboard geometry (area deviation: -12%), while the concentric cylinder showed the highest stability over 60 min (height deviation: 9%). These findings highlight the potential of using encapsulated bioactive compounds in 3D food printing to develop functional foods with tailored nutritional and mechanical properties.

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Chitin nanofibrils (NCh, ∼10 nm lateral size) were produced under conditions that were less severe compared to those for other biomass-derived nanomaterials and used to formulate high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). Pre-emulsification followed by continuous oil feeding facilitated a "scaffold" with high elasticity, which arrested droplet mobility and coarsening, achieving edible oil-in-water emulsions with internal phase volume fraction as high as 88%. The high stabilization ability of rodlike NCh originated from the restricted coarsening, droplet breakage and coalescence upon emulsion formation. This was the result of (a) irreversible adsorption at the interface (wettability measurements by the captive bubble method) and (b) structuring in highly interconnected fibrillar networks in the continuous phase (rheology, cryo-SEM, and fluorescent microscopies). Because the surface energy of NCh can be tailored by pH (protonation of surface amino groups), emulsion formation was found to be pH-dependent. Emulsions produced at pH from 3 to 5 were most stable (at least for 3 weeks). Although at a higher pH NCh was dispersible and the three-phase contact angle indicated better interfacial wettability to the oil phase, the lower interdroplet repulsion caused coarsening at high oil loading. We further show the existence of a trade-off between NCh axial aspect and minimum NCh concentration to stabilize 88% oil-in-water HIPPEs: only 0.038 wt % (based on emulsion mass) NCh of high axial aspect was required compared to 0.064 wt % for the shorter one. The as-produced HIPPEs were easily textured by taking advantage of their elastic behavior and resilience to compositional changes. Hence, chitin-based HIPPEs were demonstrated as emulgel inks suitable for 3D printing (millimeter definition) via direct ink writing, e.g., for edible functional foods and ultralight solid foams displaying highly interconnected pores and for potential cell culturing applications.

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This paper discusses a method to perform direct ink writing (DIW) 3D printing of okara─a soybean byproduct generated from the production of soy milk and bean curd─without using rheology modifiers. Food additives are commonly added to food inks to modify the rheological properties to improve printability and ensure the fidelity of the printed structures. The use of additives may, however, cause unintended changes in the texture and flavor of the original foods. To overcome this challenge, we identified the particle size and concentration of okara that achieve desired rheological properties to ensure 3D printability. Our measurement suggested the particle sizes were an essential variable to determine the rheological properties of the okara ink. 3D printable okara inks were demonstrated with 33% w/w of okara powders with particle sizes of <100 μm, which gave the yield stress of 200 ± 40 Pa and the storage modulus of 23300 ± 300 Pa. Using the formulated okara ink, we fabricated 3D structures to achieve different textures, which was identified by texture profile analysis (TPA). This study suggests a simple route to formulate water-insoluble powder-based foods into printable ink without additional rheology modifiers. This work also highlights a unique route to upcycle the food waste (i.e., okara powders) into visually appealing snacks with customized texture, highlighting the potential use of 3D food printing to improve food sustainability.

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Vegetables are healthy foods with nutritional benefits; however, nearly one-third of the world's vegetables are lost each year, and some of the losses happen due to the imperfect shape of the vegetables. In this study, imperfect vegetables (i.e., broccoli and carrots) were upcycled into freeze-dried powders to improve their shelf-life before they were formed into food inks for 3D printing. The rheology of the food inks, color analysis of the uncooked and cooked designs, and texture analysis of the cooked designs were determined. The inks with 50% and 75% vegetables provided the best printability and shape fidelity. 3D printing at these conditions retained a volume comparable to the digital file (14.4 and 14.3 cm³ vs. 14.6 cm³, respectively). The control, a wheat flour-based formulation, showed the lowest level of stability after 3D printing. The viscosity results showed that all the food inks displayed shear-thinning behavior, with broccoli having the greatest effect on viscosity. There was a significant color difference between uncooked and cooked samples, as well as between different formulations. The hardness of the baked 3D-printed samples was affected by the type and content of vegetable powders, where carrot-based snacks were notably harder than snacks containing broccoli. Overall, the results show that 3D food printing can be potentially used to reduce the loss and waste of imperfect vegetables.

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3D printing food offers the ability to customize shapes, texture, as well as nutritional content. In addition, it can automate the cooking process to save time and produce meals on-demand to minimize waste. One potential application is to 3D print food for those suffering from dysphagia, a condition that affects one’s ability to swallow. Texture modified food products for dysphagia often lose their shape and have limited visual appeal. 3D printing could provide shape to these texture modified food products and ultimately improve nutrient intake. One of the limitations that are currently preventing wider adaption of this technology is the lack of understanding of how food properties affect the 3D printing process and quality of the printed object. &#13;\nIn this thesis, room temperature extrusion-based 3D printing was investigated using a desktop 3D printer with a syringe extrusion system. Two hydrocolloids, modified starch and xanthan gum, were used as model material to study room temperature extrusion-based 3D printing. &#13;\nThe relationship between the 3D printer settings and the extrusion process variables, extrusion rate and nozzle speed, was obtained by investigating the machine command (G-code). The nozzle speed could be controlled by the extrusion multiplier while the extrusion rate could be controlled by the stepper motor speed. In addition, extrusion tests showed that the syringe extrusion system displayed a lag time around 2 to 5 minutes before stable extrusion rate was reached. The extrusion lag time increased with increased material yield stresses and decreased with increased syringe motor speed. &#13;\nXanthan gum paste, modified starch pastes, and puréed carrot were selected as model inks. Oscillatory rheology measurements including strain and frequency sweep were conducted to study the range of properties suitable for 3D printing. The range of yield stress suitable for extrusion was between 60-730 Pa and around 0.1-0.2 for the loss tangent (tan δ). The printable range of complex modulus (G*) was from 320 to 1200 Pa. Furthermore, data from the frequency sweep of xanthan gum and modified starch pastes was fitted to power law models and compared to published data of foods to assess their potential suitability as food inks for 3D printing. Puréed carrot had higher G* compared to xanthan gum and modified starch pastes but had lower elasticity. Puréed carrot was suitable for 3D printing because of its stiffness and low elasticity. In addition, food texture measurements based on the methods described in the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) were also conducted. Printable inks were able to retain its shape on a fork without dripping through the prongs and slide off a spoon with minimal residue. &#13;\nTwo printed objects were considered, a line and a cylinder. The line printing was conducted to find the optimal settings of volumetric extrusion rate, nozzle speed, and layer height. The cylinder printing was conducted to assess the effects of ink rheology and infill levels, the fraction of the interior of the object to be filled with material when printed, on maximum build height. Continuous lines and sharp angles were able to be 3D printed when the line diameter was 130% of the nozzle diameter. Slightly thicker lines ensure proper layer adhesion. The layer height of the printed line, determined from the aspect ratio (height over width), ranged from 50% to 80% of the nozzle diameter. Lower aspect ratio indicated spreading of the ink. The cylinder printing experiments indicated that an ink with storage modulus (G’) around 300 Pa produced cylinder up to 20 mm height before collapse, while an ink with G’ around 900 Pa produced a cylinder up to twice the height. Increasing infill levels from 0 to 50% provided additional internal support to the structure but subjected the object to more stress due to nozzle movement.&#13;\nThe work presented in this thesis generated information on how rheological characteristics affect the food’s suitability for room temperature extrusion-based 3D printing as well as the quality of the printed object. The relationships between the 3D printer, slicer setting, and G-code were investigated to understand how extrusion rates and nozzle speeds can be controlled for 3D printing paste type inks. Food texture measurements based on the methods described in the International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) were conducted with fork and spoon to assess the ink’s consistency and adhesiveness. Rheological characterization of the inks provided upper and lower limit of a printable ink. Power law models were used to analyze the rheology data and the models parameters of the inks were compared to published data of foods to assess their potential suitability as food inks for 3D printing.

Three-dimensional printing, or additive manufacturing, produces three-dimensional objects using a digital model. Its utilisation has been observed across various industries, including the food industry. Technology offers a wide range of possibilities in this field, including creating innovative products with unique compositions, shapes, and textures. A significant challenge in 3D printing is the development of the optimal ink composition. These inks must possess the appropriate rheology and texture for printing and meet nutritional and sensory requirements. The rheological properties of inks play a pivotal role in the printing process, influencing the formation of stable structures. This article comprehensively characterises food inks, distinguishing two primary categories and their respective subgroups. The first category encompasses non-natively extrudable inks, including plant-based inks derived from fruits and vegetables and meat-based inks. The second category comprises natively extrudable inks, encompassing dairy-based, hydrogel-based, and confectionary-based inks. The product properties of rheology, texture, fidelity, and printing stability are then discussed. Finally, the innovative use of food inks is shown.

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Direct ink writing (DIW) is a three-dimensional (3D) printing technique exploited by researchers working in fields from scaffolds for energy applications to bioprinting. DIW's main strength is that it enables shaping advanced materials, if these materials can be formulated into complex fluids that meet the demands of the printing process. They must be extremely shear thinning soft solids, able to flow through narrow nozzles, recovering their structure upon deposition and retaining the predesigned 3D shape. Formulation design and rheology are critical, but these aspects can be overlooked due to the high specialization required. This work provides insight on the rheology and printability of complex yield-stress fluids through the study of linear and nonlinear behaviors using large-amplitude oscillatory shear rheology. We refine previous protocols and develop tools to understand the behaviors of formulations for DIW. We apply an existing mathematical framework to a library of carbon-based formulations for energy applications. Fourier transform analysis enables quantifying the onset and rising of higher harmonic contributions. Quantitative comparisons between different formulations are established using 3D harmonics maps, stress–strain plots, and material measures of nonlinearities [Fourier and Chebyshev coefficients, elastic moduli (GM′, GL′), and dimensionless index of nonlinearity (S)]. 3D Lissajous plots provide a qualitative alternative to interpretate the yielding transition. We create Ashby-type printability maps to guide formulation design and elucidate that non-printable formulations show distinctive features. This insight on yield-stress fluids for DIW is relevant to other applications and technologies: drilling fluids, gels, colloids, and foods.

Eating and swallowing food are major challenges for the elderly with dysphagia. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing allows the creation of elderly food with nutrition, attractive shapes, and soft texture customizations. This study aimed to investigate the printability of soft-textured food (the mixture of chickpea protein isolate (CPI) with mealworm protein isolate (MPI) gel) by using single-nozzle printing (SNP) and coaxial printing (CoP) techniques. Artificial food boluses were prepared and their rheological properties were determined to understand safe swallowing. In the CoP system, extrusion pressure delivered alginate hydrogel (AH) as an outer fluid to support the structure of fragile food ink, resulting in printability and structural stability. Foods produced using the SNP technique exhibited printing failure. All printed foods exhibited a lower hardness value of ≤5 × 103 N/m2, corresponding to stage 4 of the universal design food (UDF) guideline. After oral food process simulation, the artificial CoP bolus showed significantly higher values of viscoelasticity, yield stress, and viscosity than the SNP and control boluses. This suggests a favorable cohesive bolus form that can prevent pulmonary aspiration during food swallowing. The CoP bolus displayed a denser microstructure due to the binding effect of the alginate molecules with positive electrolytes in the artificial saliva, which agreed with its higher rheological properties. This study successfully transformed unprintable soft food to be printable with an attractive 3D printing food shape using CoP technique as personalized food for the elderly. Additionally, this study provided insight into the relationship between bolus rheology and safe swallowing management.

3D printing has numerous applications in the food industry that may enhance diversity, quality, healthiness, and sustainability. This innovative additive manufacturing technology has the ability to specifically tailor food properties for individuals. Nevertheless, several challenges still need to be overcome before 3D printing can be utilized more widely in the food industry. This article focuses on the development and characterization of "food inks" suitable for 3D printing of foods. Specifically, the main factors impacting successfully printed foods are highlighted, including material properties and printing parameters. The creation of a 3D printed food with the appropriate quality and functional attributes requires understanding and control of these factors. Food ink printability is an especially important factor that depends on their composition, structure, and physicochemical properties. Previous studies do not sufficiently describe the precise design and operation of 3D printers in sufficient detail, which makes comparing results challenging. Additionally, important physicochemical characteristics utilized in traditional food are not consistently reported in 3D inks, such as moisture content, water activity, and microbial contamination, which limits the practical application of the results. For this reason, we highlight important factors impacting 3D ink formulation and performance, then provide suggestions for standardizing and optimizing 3D printed foods.

To help people with dysphagia increase their food intake, 3D printing can be used to improve the visual appeal of pureed diets. In this review, we have looked at the works done to date on extrusion-based 3D food printing with an emphasis on the edible materials (food inks) and machinery (printers) used. We discuss several methods that researchers have employed to modify conventional food materials into printable formulations. In general, additives such as hydrocolloids may modify the rheological properties and texture of a pureed food to confer printability. Some examples of such additives include starch, pectin, gelatin, nanocellulose, alginate, carrageenan <i>etc</i>. In the second part, we have looked at various food printers that have been developed for both academic and commercial purposes. We identified several common advantages and limitations that these printers shared. Moving forward, future research into food printer development should aim to improve on these strengths, eliminate these limitations and incorporate new capabilities.

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The field of 3D food printing is poised to revolutionize the gastronomic landscape by offering precise and customized food creations. This short review explores the fundamental concepts and physical qualities that influence the design, structure, and taste of 3D-printed food, examining the interplay between physics and food, including viscosity, rheology, surface tension, and heat transfer, contributing to understanding and advancing 3D food printing technology. The basics of 3D food printing, the physics-driven design and structure of printed food, the role of heat transfer and thermal effects, and the sensory aspects and flavor perception in 3D-printed food are discussed. Furthermore, it highlights the recent advances and innovations in 3D food printing, along with the challenges that lie ahead and future directions for research. This perspective underscores the importance of physics in shaping the future of 3D food printing, with potential applications ranging from personalized nutrition to sustainable food production. By embracing a physics-driven approach, we can unlock this disruptive technology's full potential and transform how we produce and experience food.

Owing to COVID-19, the world has advanced faster in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, along with the 3D printing technology that has achieved innovation in personalized manufacturing. Three-dimensional printing technology has been utilized across various fields such as environmental fields, medical systems, and military materials. Recently, the 3D food printer global market has shown a high annual growth rate and is a huge industry of approximately one billion dollars. Three-dimensional food printing technology can be applied to various food ranges based on the advantages of designing existing food to suit one’s taste and purpose. Currently, many countries worldwide produce various 3D food printers, developing special foods such as combat food, space food, restaurants, floating food, and elderly food. Many people are unaware of the utilization of the 3D food printing technology industry as it is in its early stages. There are various cases using 3D food printing technology in various parts of the world. Three-dimensional food printing technology is expected to become a new trend in the new normal era after COVID-19. Compared to other 3D printing industries, food 3D printing technology has a relatively small overall 3D printing utilization and industry size because of problems such as insufficient institutionalization and limitation of standardized food materials for 3D food printing. In this review, the current industrial status of 3D food printing technology was investigated with suggestions for the improvement of the food 3D printing market in the new normal era.

As an emerging digital production technology, 3D food printing intends to meet the demand for customized food design, personalized nutrition, simplification of the food supply chain system, and greater food material diversity. Most 3D food printing studies focus on the development of materials for extrusion-based food printing. Plant-based foods are essential for a healthy diet, and they are growing in popularity as their positive effects on human health gain wider recognition. The number of original studies on plant-based printable materials has increased significantly in the past few years. Currently, there is an absence of a comprehensive systematic review on the applications of plant-based materials in extrusion-based food printing. Thus, this review aims to provide a more intuitive overview and guidance for future research on 3D printing of plant-based materials. The requirements, classifications, and binding mechanisms of extrusion-based food printing materials are first summarized. Additionally, notable recent achievements and emerging trends involving the use of plant-based materials in extrusion-based food printing are reviewed across three categories, namely, hot-melt (e.g., chocolate), hydrogel, and soft (e.g., cereal- and fruit/vegetable-based) materials. Finally, the challenges facing 3D food printing technology as well as its future prospects are discussed.

Three-dimensional printing (3DP) technology gained significance in the fields of medicine, engineering, the food industry, and molecular gastronomy. 3D food printing (3DFP) has the main objective of tailored food manufacturing, both in terms of sensory properties and nutritional content. Additionally, global challenges like food-waste reduction could be addressed through this technology by improving process parameters and by sustainable use of ingredients, including the incorporation of recovered nutrients from agro-industrial by-products in printed nourishment. The aim of the present review is to highlight the implementation of 3DFP in personalized nutrition, considering the technology applied, the texture and structure of the final product, and the integrated constituents like binding/coloring agents and fortifying ingredients, in order to reach general acceptance of the consumer. Personalized 3DFP refers to special dietary necessities and can be promising to prevent different non-communicable diseases through improved functional food products, containing bioactive compounds like proteins, antioxidants, phytonutrients, and/or probiotics.

Dysphagia is a condition in which the swallowing mechanism is impaired. It is most often a result of a stroke. Dysphagia has serious consequences, including choking and aspiration pneumonia, which can both be fatal. The population that is most affected by it is the elderly. Texture-modified diets are part of the treatment plan for dysphagia. This bland, restrictive diet often contributes to malnutrition in patients with dysphagia. Both energy and protein intake are of concern, which is especially worrying, as it affects the elderly. Making texture-modified diets more appealing is one method to increase food intake. As a recent technology, 3D food printing has great potential to increase the appeal of textured foods. With extrusion-based printing, both protein and vegetable products have already been 3D printed that fit into the texture categories provided by the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative. Another exciting advancement is 4D food printing which could make foods even more appealing by incorporating color change and aroma release following a stimulus. The ultra-processed nature of 3D-printed foods is of nutritional concern since this affects the digestion of the food and negatively affects the gut microbiome. There are mitigating strategies to this issue, including the addition of hydrocolloids that increase stomach content viscosity and the addition of probiotics. Therefore, 3D food printing is an improved method for the production of texture-modified diets that should be further explored.

Over the past decade or so, there have been major advances in the development of 3D printing technology to create innovative food products, including for printing foods in homes, restaurants, schools, hospitals, and even space flight missions. 3D food printing has the potential to customize foods for individuals based on their personal preferences for specific visual, textural, mouthfeel, flavor, or nutritional attributes. Material extrusion is the most common process currently used to 3D print foods, which is based on forcing a fluid or semi-solid food "ink" through a nozzle and then solidifying it. This type of 3D printing application for space missions is particularly promising because a wide range of foods can be produced from a limited number of food inks in a confined area. This is especially important for extended space missions because astronauts desire and require a variety of foods, but space and resources are minimal. This review highlights the potential applications of 3D printing for creating custom-made foods in space and the challenges that need to be addressed.

The additive manufacturing technology has been applied to directly construct physical model from 3D model without mold and die. Several industries utilize this technology to manufacture a complicated part such as automobile, aerospace including food industry. The advantage 3D food printing are ability to produce complex food model and ability to design unique pattern. A 3D food printing technique is composed of an extrusion-based printing, binder jetting and inkjet printing. The food materials such as sugar, chocolate, and cheese are used to create designed shape based on layer-by-layer. This paper presents a review of 3D food printing techniques. This review is to categorize, printability, productivity, properties of material and mechanism of 3D food printing techniques, as well as to provide the direction of future development.

Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP) uses additive manufacturing concepts to fabricate customized designed products with food ingredients in powder, liquid, dough, or paste presentations. In some cases, it uses additives, such as hydrocolloids, starch, enzymes, and antibrowning agents. Chocolate, cheese, sugar, and starch-based materials are among the most used ingredients for 3DFP, and there is a broad and growing interest in meat-, fruit-, vegetable-, insect-, and seaweed-based alternative raw materials. Here, we reviewed the most recent published information related to 3DFP for novel uses, including personalized nutrition and health-oriented applications, such as the use of 3D-printed food as a drug vehicle, and four-dimensional food printing (4DFP). We also reviewed the use of this technology in aesthetic food improvement, which is the most popular use of 3DFP recently. Finally, we provided a prospective and perspective view of this technology. We also reflected on its multidisciplinary character and identified aspects in which social and regulatory affairs must be addressed to fulfill the promises of 3DFP in human health improvement.

As a recently developed way of food manufacturing - 3D printing - is bringing about a revolution in the food industry. Rheological and mechanical properties of food material being printed are the determinants of their printability. Therefore, it is important to analyze the requirements of different 3D printing technologies on material properties and to evaluate the performance of the printed materials. In this review, the printing characteristics and classification of food materials are discussed. The four commonly used 3D printing techniques e.g. extrusion-based printing, selective sintering printing (SLS), binder jetting, and inkjet printing, are outlined along with suitable material characteristics required for each printing technique. Finally, recent technologies for evaluation of 3D printed products including low field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), computer numerical simulation, applied reference material, morphological identification, and some novel instrumental analysis techniques are highlighted.

This study introduces the first generation food printer concept designs and workable prototypes that target to revolutionize customized food fabrication by 3D printing (3DP). Different from robotics-based food manufacturing technologies designed to automate manual processes for mass production, 3D food printing integrates 3DP and digital gastronomy technique to manufacture food products with customization in shape, colour, flavor, texture and even nutrition. This introduces artistic capabilities to fine dining, and extend customization capabilities to industrial culinary sector. The selected prototypes are reviewed based on fabrication platforms and printing materials. A detailed discussion on specific 3DP technologies and their associate dispensing/printing process for 3D customized food fabrication are reported for single and multi-material applications. Eventually, impacts of food printing on personalized nutrition, on-demand food fabrication, food processing technologies and process design are reported. Their applications in domestic cooking or catering services can not only provide an engineering solution for customized food design and personalized nutrition control, but also a potential machine to reconfigure a customized food supply chain.

One of the recent, innovative, and digital food revolutions gradually gaining acceptance is three-dimensional food printing (3DFP), an additive technique used to develop products, with the possibility of obtaining foods with complex geometries. Recent interest in this technology has opened the possibilities of complementing existing processes with 3DFP for better value addition. Fermentation and malting are age-long traditional food processes known to improve food value, functionality, and beneficial health constituents. Several studies have demonstrated the applicability of 3D printing to manufacture varieties of food constructs, especially cereal-based, from root and tubers, fruit and vegetables as well as milk and milk products, with potential for much more value-added products. This review discusses the extrusion-based 3D printing of foods and the major factors affecting the process development of successful edible 3D structures. Though some novel food products have emanated from 3DFP, considering the beneficial effects of traditional food processes, particularly fermentation and malting in food, concerted efforts should also be directed toward developing 3D products using substrates from these conventional techniques. Such experimental findings will significantly promote the availability of minimally processed, affordable, and convenient meals customized in complex geometric structures with enhanced functional and nutritional values.

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Abstract Three‐dimensional (3D) printing has promising application potentials in improving food product manufacturing, increasingly helping in simplifying the supply chain, as well as expanding the utilization of food materials. To further understand the current situation of 3D food printing in providing food engineering solutions with customized design, the authors checked recently conducted reviews and considered the extrusion‐based type to deserve additional literature synthesis. In this perspective review, therefore, we scoped the potentials of 3D extrusion‐based printing in resolving food processing challenges. The evolving trends of 3D food printing technologies, fundamentals of extrusion processes, food printer, and printing enhancement, (extrusion) food systems, algorithm development, and associated food rheological properties were discussed. The (extrusion) mechanism in 3D food printing involving some essentials for material flow and configuration, its uniqueness, suitability, and printability to food materials, (food material) types in the extrusion‐based (3D food printing), together with essential food properties and their dynamics were also discussed. Additionally, some bottlenecks/concerns still applicable to extrusion‐based 3D food printing were brainstormed. Developing enhanced calibrating techniques for 3D printing materials, and designing better methods of integrating data will help improve the algorithmic representations of printed foods. Rheological complexities associated with the extrusion‐based 3D food printing require both industry and researchers to work together so as to tackle the (rheological) shifts that make (food) materials unsuitable. Practical Applications As a processing technology with digital additive manufacturing methodology, 3D food printing over the decades has evolved greatly with the extrusion‐based type increasingly studied. This perspective review scoped the potentials of 3D extrusion‐based printing in resolving food processing challenges. In this work, we demonstrated how this extrusion‐based technique increasingly contributes to situate the 3D food printing as among innovative technologies with an upscale dimension. To fully embrace the extrusion‐based 3D printing, the food industry needs to primarily understand the potentials this technology would provide in enhancing food material properties/types.

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3D food printing is an emerging technology to structure foods from digital designs. A number of food inks are formulated to 3D/4D print foods with customized appearance. This mini review focuses on the recent developments in 3D printing of personalized foods with modified sensorial properties (e.g. texture and flavor). Varying sensory perceptions of printed food could lead to eating behavior changes among consumers and potentially achieve personalized nutrition. Modifying geometric designs and varying spatial distributions of ingredients are common techniques to alter sensorial properties of printed foods. The high degree of customization of 3D food printing indicates its potential as an on-demand production tool for personalized foods. Nevertheless, we suggest that longitudinal consumer insights and robust printers are needed to further achieve 3D printing of personalized foods.

Extrusion-based 3D food printing is one of the most common ways to manufacture complex shapes and personalized food. A wide variety of food raw materials have been documented in the last two decades for the fabrication of personalized food for various groups of people. This review aims to highlight the most relevant and current information on the use of protein raw materials as functional 3D food printing ink. The functional properties of protein raw materials, influencing factors, and application of different types of protein in 3D food printing were also discussed. This article also clarified that the effective and reasonable utilization of protein is a vital part of the future 3D food printing ink development process. The challenges of achieving comprehensive nutrition and customization, enhancing printing precision and accuracy, and paying attention to product appearance, texture, and shelf life remain significant.

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing technology combines 3D printing and food manufacturing. Rapidly increasing number of publications on various aspects of 3D food printing indicate the importance of this technology to food industry. The potential of delivering personalized products tailored to meet the taste preferences and specific dietary needs is one of the reasons for increasing researches in this technology. Currently there is an absence of a systematic review on the functional 3D printing. Also, there is no review on four-dimensional (4D) food printing concept that has emerged recently. This paper systematically reviews the functional ingredients used for creating printable food formula and their functions, including physiological functions, beneficial for health and physico-chemical functions, affecting the quality of 3D printing. In addition, it analyzes the functions of internal structures used or developed during 3D printing (infill structure and infill density) and their effects on texture properties of 3D printed food. Finally, it also introduces the concept of 4D food printing and summarizes the current advances in this novel technology.

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The application of chitosan (CS) and whey protein (WP) alone or in combination in 3D/4D printing has been well considered in previous studies. Although several excellent reviews on additive manufacturing discussed the properties and biomedical applications of CS and WP, there is a lack of a systemic review about CS and WP bio-inks for 3D/4D printing applications. Easily modified bio-ink with optimal printability is a key for additive manufacturing. CS, WP, and WP-CS complex hydrogel possess great potential in making bio-ink that can be broadly used for future 3D/4D printing, because CS is a functional polysaccharide with good biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, and non-carcinogenicity, while CS-WP complex hydrogel has better printability and drug-delivery effectivity than WP hydrogel. The review summarizes the current advances of bio-ink preparation employing CS and/or WP to satisfy the requirements of 3D/4D printing and post-treatment of materials. The applications of CS/WP bio-ink mainly focus on 3D food printing with a few applications in cosmetics. The review also highlights the trends of CS/WP bio-inks as potential candidates in 4D printing. Some promising strategies for developing novel bio-inks based on CS and/or WP are introduced, aiming to provide new insights into the value-added development and commercial CS and WP utilization.

A relatively new field of 4D printing that is still in its infancy is 4D food printing. The food printing industry and academia have taken a keen interest in 4D printing. An overview of 4D printing is provided in the present article, with a focus on 4D food printing. This article discusses how different stimuli affect the color, flavor, texture, and form of food samples that are 4D printed. It discusses the creation of 4D designs, food printing ink, and several techniques for 4D food printing. Smart materials or multimaterials with shape- or function-changing capabilities may now be printed thanks to recent, quick advancements in 3D printing technology and material research. First, we examine the parallels and divergences between 4D and 3D printing in this review. the key components of 4D printing technology, including clever designs and materials.An overview of the uses for 4D printing at the moment.A succinct overview of two exciting applications that show where and how food printing technology is now developing: the production of programmable food textures and 4D food printing.

Additive manufacturing (AM) alias 3D printing translates computer-aided design (CAD) virtual 3D models into physical objects. By digital slicing of CAD, 3D scan, or tomography data, AM builds objects layer by layer without the need for molds or machining. AM enables decentralized fabrication of customized objects on demand by exploiting digital information storage and retrieval via the Internet. The ongoing transition from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing prompts new challenges for mechanical engineers and materials scientists alike. Because polymers are by far the most utilized class of materials for AM, this Review focuses on polymer processing and the development of polymers and advanced polymer systems specifically for AM. AM techniques covered include vat photopolymerization (stereolithography), powder bed fusion (SLS), material and binder jetting (inkjet and aerosol 3D printing), sheet lamination (LOM), extrusion (FDM, 3D dispensing, 3D fiber deposition, and 3D plotting), and 3D bioprinting. The range of polymers used in AM encompasses thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, hydrogels, functional polymers, polymer blends, composites, and biological systems. Aspects of polymer design, additives, and processing parameters as they relate to enhancing build speed and improving accuracy, functionality, surface finish, stability, mechanical properties, and porosity are addressed. Selected applications demonstrate how polymer-based AM is being exploited in lightweight engineering, architecture, food processing, optics, energy technology, dentistry, drug delivery, and personalized medicine. Unparalleled by metals and ceramics, polymer-based AM plays a key role in the emerging AM of advanced multifunctional and multimaterial systems including living biological systems as well as life-like synthetic systems.

Abstract The evolution of food manufacturing through 3D printing has expanded with the development of 4D printing technology and opened new possibilities in culinary applications. Compared to conventional 3D printing, 4D printing incorporates time as a new dimension, allowing for dynamic modifications to food structures. Self‐assembly and reactions to external factors such as pH, moisture content, or temperature are examples of these alterations. The gastronomic design and nutritional possibilities have increased with the use of 4D printing in the food preparation process. Personalized nutrition is a significant use of 4D printing in the food industry. With the use of this technology, food products may be tailored to meet the dietary requirements of everyone, encouraging better eating practice and treating nutritional shortages. Furthermore, complex culinary designs that were previously difficult to accomplish are now possible by 4D printing. Intelligent materials that adapt their surroundings allow for self‐adjusting forms or packaging, which lowers waste and promotes sustainable food practices. Transportation and food storage could be revolutionized by 4D printing. Food deterioration and waste can be reduced, and food quality preserved throughout storage and transportation with the help of self‐adjusting packaging that adjusts to temperature fluctuations. Examining the most recent advancements in 4D food printing technology, this review highlights how this technology can revolutionize customized nutrition, sustainability, waste management, and culinary inventiveness. Practical Applications Understanding the concept and advances in food printing technology is important to develop nutritionally enriched food products with desired shape. The factors involved in 4D food printing technologies and the structural and biochemical changes in products during processing are critically analyzed.

Three-dimensional printing technology enables the personalization and on-demand production of edible products of individual specifications. Four-dimensional printing technology expands the application scope of 3D printing technology, which controllably changes the quality attributes of 3D printing products over time. The concept of 5D/6D printing technology is also gradually developing in the food field. However, the functional value of food printing technology remains largely unrealized on a commercial scale due to limitations of printability and printing efficiency. This review focuses on recent developments in breaking through these barriers. The key factors and improvement methods ranging from ink properties and printer design required for successful printing of personalized foods (including easy-to-swallow foods, specially shaped foods, and foods with controlled release of functional ingredients) are identified and discussed. Novel evaluation methods for printability and printing precision are outlined. Furthermore, the design of printing equipment to increase printing efficiency is discussed along with some suggestions for cost-effective commercial printing.

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Four-dimensional food printing (4DFP) is a novel additive manufacturing technique that enables production of edible objects with complicated shapes and specific properties under internal or external stimuli. 4DFP presents unique prospects and research capabilities in developing innovative food materials, customized nutrition, interactive dining experiences, and the customization of flavour and texture. The 4D printed construct may experience colour, shape, flavour, or nutritional quality transformations. The 3D printed materials transform into the 4D printed under the application of a stimuli. The stimuli applied interact with base food materials and stimuli responsive/smart materials to make the 4D transformation. This review aims to consolidate the different ingredients used and the stimuli responsive effects occurring in the printed product. The impact of stimuli on textural, nutritional, and sensory properties is analysed at length. The shelf life and consumer acceptance of 4D printed food is also considered in this review. The economic feasibility and commercialization of 4DFP are still uncertain aspects of the technology.

Additive manufacturing (AM) has gained significant attention due to its ability to drive technological development as a sustainable, flexible, and customizable manufacturing scheme. Among the various AM techniques, direct ink writing (DIW) has emerged as the most versatile 3D printing technique for the broadest range of materials. DIW allows printing of practically any material, as long as the precursor ink can be engineered to demonstrate appropriate rheological behavior. This technique acts as a unique pathway to introduce design freedom, multifunctionality, and stability simultaneously into its printed structures. Here, a comprehensive review of DIW of complex 3D structures from various materials, including polymers, ceramics, glass, cement, graphene, metals, and their combinations through multimaterial printing is presented. The review begins with an overview of the fundamentals of ink rheology, followed by an in-depth discussion of the various methods to tailor the ink for DIW of different classes of materials. Then, the diverse applications of DIW ranging from electronics to food to biomedical industries are discussed. Finally, the current challenges and limitations of this technique are highlighted, followed by its prospects as a guideline toward possible futuristic innovations.

An important factor in consumers' acceptability, beyond visual appearance and taste, is food texture. The elderly and people with dysphagia are more likely to present malnourishment due to visually and texturally unappealing food. Three-dimensional Printing is an additive manufacturing technology that can aid the food industry in developing novel and more complex food products and has the potential to produce tailored foods for specific needs. As a technology that builds food products layer by layer, 3D Printing can present a new methodology to design realistic food textures by the precise placement of texturing elements in the food, printing of multi-material products, and design of complex internal structures. This paper intends to review the existing work on 3D food printing and discuss the recent developments concerning food texture design. Advantages and limitations of 3D Printing in the food industry, the material-based printability and model-based texture, and the future trends in 3D Printing, including numerical simulations, incorporation of cooking technology to the printing, and 4D modifications are discussed. Key challenges for the mainstream adoption of 3D Printing are also elaborated on.

Three-dimensional printing can be successfully applied in the food sector to fabricate 3D foods with complex geometries, customized texture, and tailored nutritional contents. The concrete application of 3D printing to foods began in the early 2000 s. This work is aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of 3D printed foods. Details and issues concerning ingredients and technologies available for 3D food printing are supplied as well as the discussion of aspects such as nutritional values, safety, acceptability, sustainability, and legal framework of 3D printed foods.The main 3D food applications are based on the extrusion technology and concern natively printable materials such as cereal derivatives and chocolate. However, interesting applications concern alternative ingredients such as proteins and fibres isolated from insects, algae, microorganisms, and agri-food residues. Microbiological contamination and migration of toxic substances from printer elements can occur, but effective cleaning protocols and the use of materials authorized to come into contact with foods guarantee the necessary safety standards. A serious issue concerns acceptability of 3D printed foods, since it is greatly affected by their unusual appearance. From a legal point of view, 3D printed foods should be considered as “novel foods”. 3D food printing should be considered an opportunity for the development of new business strategies as well as a way to increase the food supply chain sustainability. The future perspectives of 3D food printing include the combination of 3D food printing and cooking on a single machine and the development of the 4D printing.

Super reconstructed foods (SRFs) have characteristics beyond those of real system in terms of nutrition, texture, appearance, and other properties. As 3D/4D food printing technology continues to be improved in recent years, this layered manufacturing/additive manufacturing preparation technology based on food reconstruction has made it possible to continuously develop large-scale manufacture of SRFs. Compared with the traditional reconstructed foods, SRFs prepared using 3D/4D printing technologies are discussed comprehensively in this review. To meet the requirements of customers in terms of nutrition or other characteristics, multi-processing technologies are being combined with 3D/4D printing. Aspects of printing inks, product quality parameters, and recent progress in SRFs based on 3D/4D printing are assessed systematically and discussed critically. The potential for 3D/4D printed SRFs and the need for further research and developments in this area are presented and discussed critically. In addition to the natural materials which were initially suitable for 3D/4D printing, other derivative components have already been applied, which include hydrogels, polysaccharide-based materials, protein-based materials, and smart materials with distinctive characteristics. SRFs based on 3D/4D printing can retain the characteristics of deconstruction and reconstruction while also exhibiting quality parameters beyond those of the original material systems, such as variable rheological properties, on-demand texture, essential printability, improved microstructure, improved nutrition, and more appealing appearance. SRFs with 3D/4D printing are already widely used in foods such as simulated foods, staple foods, fermented foods, foods for people with special dietary needs, and foods made from food processingbyproducts.

Edible hydrogels are the central material class in 3D food printing because they reconcile two competing needs: (i) low resistance to flow under nozzle shear and (ii) fast recovery of elastic structure after deposition to preserve geometry. This review consolidates the recent years of progress on hydrogel formulations-gelatin, alginate, pectin, carrageenan, agar, starch-based gels, gellan, and cellulose derivatives, xanthan/konjac blends, protein-polysaccharide composites, and emulsion gels alongside a critical analysis of printing technologies relevant to food: extrusion, inkjet, binder jetting, and laser-based approaches. For each material, this review connects gelation triggers and compositional variables to rheology signatures that govern printability and then maps these to process windows and post-processing routes. This review consolidates a decision-oriented workflow for edible-hydrogel printability that links formulation variables, process parameters, and geometric fidelity through standardized test constructs (single line, bridge, thin wall) and rheology-anchored gates (e.g., yield stress and recovery). Building on these elements, a "printability map/window" is formalized to position inks within actionable operating regions, enabling recipe screening and process transfer. Compared with prior reviews, the emphasis is on decisions: what to measure, how to interpret it, and how to adjust inks and post-set enablers to meet target fidelity and texture. Reporting minima and a stability checklist are identified to close the loop from design to shelf.

ABSTRACT Additive manufacturing, also known as three‐dimensional food printing (3DFP), is a rapidly advancing digital technology that constructs food layer by layer. It has recently surged in popularity, influencing sectors beyond the food industry. The ability to create complex designs through this technology is correlated with the rheological properties, mechanical characteristics, and particle sizes, which are determined by the selection and interaction of ingredients. Despite the significant potential of 3DFP, the relationship between printing materials and their associated processing parameters remains limited and insufficiently documented. This review consolidates current scientific advancements related to 3DFP with detailed insights into developing food products using cereals, pulses, chocolates, fruits, and vegetables. Additionally, a comprehensive overview of printing technologies, post‐processing methods, and their impact on the rheological characteristics of food inks has been discussed. The authors highlight the key benefits, major findings, and promising applications of 3D‐printed food products in the food sector. The efficiency and precision of 3DFP coupled with its capacity for innovation will spark interest among industries in the future.